The Mesih End

Mesih Pasha was chosen from obscurity—we don't even know his original name before Mehmed II forced him to convert to Islam and made him a member of the Ottoman administration after the Conquest of Constantinople—and rose to great heights, but sultans can be fickle.

Mesih was Grand Admiral of the Ottoman navy and had great successes. He negotiated (successfully) with the rebelling Janissaries when they occupied the palace, angry at the sultan's imprisoning of one of their favorites. He negotiated a compromise with Sultan Bayezid II's rival half-brother, Cem, who had teamed up with the Knights Hospitallers in Rhodes against Bayezid. (The illustration shows Mesih at Rhodes.)

For some reason, however, he fell out of favor with Bayezid in 1485 and was dismissed from his position as vizier at court, being made simply governor of Filibe (once called Philippopolis, now Plovdiv, the second-largest city in Bulgaria). He was shortly exiled (essentially) to Kaffa, on the northern coast of the Black Sea.

His exile did not last forever. In 1497 he was made sanjak bey, military and administrative leader of the port city Akkerman (now Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi in southern Ukraine). While there he halted a Poolish invasion of Moldavia, sending several Polish nobles to Bayezid as tribute.

In 1499 he went on pilgrimage to Mecca, an excuse for leaving his position which gave him a reason to visit Constantinople and try to get back to a position at court. Fortunately, the Venetians were fighting the Ottomans again, and his previous naval experience against the Venetians led to being re-named vizier, and then in 1501 Grand Vizier.

Things were looking up again, but that same year the Venetians attacked Lesbos to get it back from the Ottomans. Bayezid, unhappy that the Venetians felt able to make such a bold move against him, in a fit of pique struck Mesih. We don't know how serious the injury may have been, but soon after, after supervising putting out a fire in a Constantinople suburb, Mesih was supposedly injured. He died in November 1501. He was buried in the Murat Pasha Mosque in Constantinople, begun by his brother Hass Murad Pasha and completed by Mesih himself.

Now for something completely different. The illustration above, a painting of Mesih addressing Rhodes, was painted by an eyewitness of that negotiation! His name was Guillaume Caoursin, and we're going to talk about him next.

The Brothers Murad and Mesih

After the conquest of Constantinople in 1453 by Mehmed II, he took two young male potential Byzantine heirs, converted them to Islam, and made them important figures in the new administration.

We don't know their original names, or their exact parentage (they were reported by some Ottoman historians to be nephews of the deposed Byzantine Emperor Constantine), but they were converted to Islam and renamed Hass Murad Pasha and Mesih Pasha. Both had powerful career positions.

Hass—a title meaning "private" or "personal"—was also very wealthy. He had accrued a significant amount of wealth by 1465/66 when he began the construction of a new mosque, called the Murat Pasha Mosque in Istanbul (still in use; see illustration).

In 1468, the current Grand Vizier and beylerbey ("lord of lords") was dismissed, and Hass replaced him as beylerbey, the commander-in-chief of the Balkans. Life in the Balkans was not peaceful. In 1473, he led a troop of 20,000 against an uprising. When the enemy retreated, Hass Murad intended to follow.

One of the men under his command, Mahmud Pasha, warned him that this particular enemy employed the tactic of "feigned retreats": pretending to flee in disarray and yet prepared to turn and fight when pursued. Murad did not listen. He crossed the Euphrates, his army was ambushed and many captured, and Hass Murad Pasha was killed.

The other brother, Mesih Pasha, was first mentioned in the records as military and administrative commander of Gelibolu (Gallipoli). Gallipoli was a chief Ottoman naval base, and so Mesih had control of a large part of the navy. There was an Ottoman-Venetian War in 1463 - 1479 in which Mesih conquered Euboea, the second-largest Greek island. 

Venetian records of the time claim that Mesih was willing to surrender Gallipoli to Venice for 40,000 gold ducats, but this arrangement never came to fruition, so may have been a Venetian plan to stir up unrest among the Ottomans, and discredit a successful enemy leader.

A new sultan came to the throne, Bayezid II (1481 - 1512). There were some problems with a rival claim, and when Bayezid imprisoned the Grand Vizier who was sympathetic to Bayezid's rival, the Janissaries revolted and invaded the palace (the Grand Vizier, like the Janissaries, was a devşirme). Mesih was sent to negotiate, which he did successfully.

In January 1485 he fell out of favor with Beyazid. This was not the end of his story, however. I'll continue it next time.

After the Conquest

Once Mehmed II had taken Constantinople in 1453, absorbing it into the Ottoman Empire, he declared himself Roman Caesar. His thinking was that Constantinople had been the seat of the emperors of Rome since 330CE, and therefore whomever sat on that throne was in charge. Western Europe and the Popes did not support this claim, but thinking was different in the East. 

Contemporary Byzantine scholar George of Trebizond (1395 - 1486) supported this view. Another who aligned with the new Caesar was Gennadius Scholarius, whom Mehmed chose as the new Patriarch of Constantinople.

Note that Mehmed did not declare Eastern Orthodoxy heretical. He was actually quite magnanimous to his potential opposition. For example, when he then turned his attention to the royal family, he did not simply execute anyone who might have provided the nucleus of an insurrection and coup.

The defeated Emperor Constantine XI Palaiologos, who had died during the siege, had no heirs. He had nephews of a deceased brother who would have been next in line. As was mentioned in the post on the Janissaries, a Muslim practice called devşirme (the "ş" is pronounced like "sh") took children of conquered peoples and converted them, training them to be loyal Muslims.

Mehmed took at least two boys who were purportedly related to Constantine, converted them to Islam and renamed them Hass Murad Pasha and Mesih Pasha. Hass—a title meaning "private" or "personal"—became beylerbey ("lord of lords"), the commander-in-chief of the Balkans in 1468. (The illustration shows his signature.) Mesih (1443 - 1501) became Grand Admiral of the Ottoman Navy.

We do not know the parentage of the two young men who rose so high in the sultan's favor. Contemporary Ottoman chronicles claim they were nephews of Constantine, but offer different names for their father. Still, Murad and Mesih were lucky that Constantine was succeeded by Mehmed and not another prominent Greek noble, who might have followed the Byzantine tradition of eliminating all possible opposition through incarceration, execution, or blinding.

It would be nice to think that the two boys had not only good lives but peaceful ends. That was not to be the case, however. I'll give you the rundown on their careers tomorrow.

The Conquest of Constantinople

In 1451, Mehmed II, sultan of the Ottoman Empire, chose as his first self-imposed task that he would conquer Constantinople. To prepare, he built up his naval force, then built a huge castle on the western side of the Bosphorus Straits, north of his target and on the shore of the Black Sea. The fortress was called Rumelihisarı. It can still be viewed today (see illustration).

Paired with a castle built on the eastern side of the strait by a previous sultan, the two were able to prevent any possible aid reaching Constantinople from the Black Sea. Mehmed used his position there to extort tolls from ships passing through. A Venetian ship that ignored the command to stop was turned into an example for others: a single shot from a cannon sank the ship, the captain was impaled, and the surviving sailors were all beheaded.

Mehmed was ready in 1453 with an army of over 80,000 soldiers, 320 ships, and dozens of artillery pieces. The siege began in April, surrounding the city by sea as well as land. The harbor into the city, the Golden Horn, was blocked by raising a chain that prevented ships from sailing in. The walls were very thick, reinforced after the attack in 1204 during the 4th Crusade.

Mehmed was undaunted. He had a mile-long road of wood built that would portage some of the ships and equipment over land and into the northern shore of the Golden Horn. It took less than two months from the start of the siege to its conclusion, on 29 May.

Mehmed made Constantinople the new Ottoman capital and declared himself caesar of the Roman Empire. The Catholic Church, Western Europe, and the rest of Christendom never accepted the Ottoman sultan as the head of the Roman Empire. He appointed an anti-Rome philosopher and theologian, Gennadius Scholarius, as Patriarch of Constantinople with all the rights of previous patriarchs, and so Gennadius accepted Mehmed publicly as the rightful successor to the throne.

Mehmed also co-opted the remains of the royal family, rather than eliminate alternate claimants. I'll tell you about the aftermath of the conquest tomorrow.

Mehmed II

Mehmed II, also called Mehmed the Conqueror, accomplished one of the most damaging counters to Christianity and Europe and conquered an enormous number of kingdoms. He also succeeded his father as sultan, for all practical purposes returned it to him, and succeeded his father a second time. All this happened before the age of 50!

Born in 1432 to Murad II, he was sent at 11 years old to Amasya in northern Turkey with his mother (supposedly a low-born woman), teachers, and advisors to learn how to govern. He also had a particular mentor, Molla Gürâni, who was a scholar, philosopher, and jurist who had a high position in Murad's and Mehmed's administrations. Another influence was Akshamsaddin, a Sunni Muslim scholar, poet, and mystic.

When Mehmed was 12, his father abdicated, leaving Mehmed in charge. Why would he do this? It was June 1444, and Murad had just made peace with Hungary after defeating the Crusade of Varna, an attempt by several European Christian countries to check the growing power of the Ottomans. He had several other victories under his belt, and perhaps wanted a life of leisure.

Hungary under John Hunyadi broke the treaty a few months later—the papal legate, Julian Cesarini, had convinced Hunyadi that breaking a truce with Muslims was not a sin–and Mehmed prepared to fight.

There was a problem: the Janissaries. Although loyal to the sultan, they were uncertain of this pre-teen who was now their commander. Their unrest caused Mehmed to ask his 40-year-old father to return and lead the armies. Murad's response was "You are the sultan; you lead the army." Mehmed's reply: "If you are the sultan, come and lead your armies. If I am the sultan, I hereby order you to come and lead my armies."

Mehmed retained the title of sultan and continued to govern, but Murad returned as commander of the military, defeating Hunyadi (again) and retaining authority until his death in 1451, when Mehmed became sole ruler for the second time. He was almost 20 years old, however, had much more experience, and was ready to take on the world.

His first goal? Constantinople. See you tomorrow.

The Later Ottomans

The Ottoman Empire, begun by Osman Ghazi, lasted until the 19th century, but we will confine ourselves to an earlier century or two. The initial motivation of Osman—to expand his realm to an empire—never stopped, and this naturally brought the Ottomans into contact with several other subjects of this blog.

Władysław III of Poland broke a ten-year truce with the Ottomans to make himself look good by starting a holy Crusade against the Turks, destroying his 20,000-man army when they faced 60,000 Turks at the Battle of Varna on 10 November 1444. Władysław was killed in that encounter. Had he lived another 20 years, he might have taken satisfaction by the news coming out of Wallachia.

Vlad "Dracula" Tsepes of Wallachia had help from the Ottomans in the 1400s, but when the sultan demanded homage in exchange (after Vlad had been elevated to Voivode of Wallachia), Vlad had the Ottoman envoys impaled, then invaded Ottoman territory and impaled many thousands. This was supported by Pope Pius II.

Medieval Chechnya converted to Sunni Islam in order to gain the help of the Ottomans against Russian invasions.

Histories of the Ottoman Empire were written by Hrotsvitha of Gandersheim and Ibn Khaldun.

The biggest event in Ottoman history that is significant for Western Europe, I would say, is the conquest of Constantinople. That was under the Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror, a reformer of both the military and his government. I'll tell you about him tomorrow.

The Janissaries

Although Alaeddin's idea to create a group ready to be called up to military service at a moment's notice failed due to their lack of training, the Ottoman Empire a generation later tried again, but this time with trained men. They were called the Janissaries—a Turkish term meaning "new soldier"—elite infantry who were part of the sultan's personal guard. They were also the first infantry in history to be equipped with firearms (but that did not take place until the 15th century).

They were established in 1363, a mere 30 years after Alaeddin's death and owing nothing to his original plans. As a standing army, they obviously could not be involved in their own careers, nor were they allowed to marry before they were 40 years old. Consequently, they were salaried. They were to have no attachments to anything other than protection and support of the sultan.

Rather than entice citizens away from their chosen professions, members of the Janissaries were drawn from other sources, and that is where the story becomes extremely uncomfortable. The Muslim world happily employed slavery, and the first Janissaries were prisoners, and prisoners of war. A sultan would take a customary one-fifth of the spoils of any conquest, and would often take it "in kind," so he would take a section of the captured population as slaves.

In fact, the Ottomans had a practice called devşirme, defined literally as "collecting"; historically, it is referred to as "blood tax" or "child levy." This was the Ottoman policy of taking children as young as seven years old—usually from the Balkan Christians they subjugated—converting them to Islam (which meant forced circumcision), and turning them into soldiers. This gave the sultan an army loyal to him and not connected to any other Turkish noble family that might have designs on the throne. (The illustration is a 16th-century painting that shows a tribute of Christian boys being presented to the sultan.)

In later centuries, free-born Muslims were allowed to join the Janissaries. This had two advantages: for the army, it allowed faster recruitment and training, and no need for religious conversion and education; for the citizens, the salary and the prestige that came with being part of an elite force was a desirable career path.

The Ottoman Empire lasted for centuries, but we will go back and see their actions in the Late Middle Ages and a few links to other posts in this blog. See you tomorrow.

The Real Aladdin

Well, not the "real" Aladdin in the sense that he was a man with a magic lamp, but a man who did perform "wonders" in this context.

When Osman Ghazi died in 1323, he left two sons, one of whom would take on the role of continuing Osman's work in creating the Ottoman Empire. There are plenty of examples of princes fighting with each other over the succession, but that did not happen in this case. Prince Orhan became the natural leader, but his brother provided valuable aid.

Alaeddin Erden Ali Pasha (c 1281 - 1331) not only did not clash with Orhan (some scholars think Alaeddin may even have been the elder of the two), but he supported his brother with ideas and projects that advanced the cause of the Ottomans in ways that mere military conquest would not.

There are three innovations for which Alaeddin gets credit during this period, while Orhan led the military and held the title of sultan. It was after a particular conquest in 1328 that Alaeddin visited his brother to congratulate him and to make three suggestions.

The first was to establish their own monetary system to enhance trade and add an air of legitimacy and independence to the Ottomans. Silver coins dating to that year have Orhan's name on one side and "May Allah make his reign eternal" on the other (see illustration).

His next suggestion was to distinguish Orhan's Ottomans from other Turks and Muslims by developing distinctive style of dress. Inspired by the Byzantines, Ottoman government and military officials took on specific clothing styles. Also, based on an Arabic saying that 'the best garment is a white one,' everyday wear was suggested to include a simple white cap to distinguish followers from non-Ottomans.

Alaeddin's most significant contribution may have been in Orhan's wheelhouse: the military. Rather than the previous method of a leader trying to maneuver a vast array of men to do his bidding, the army was divided into separate contingents, each with its own leader who would report to and gain orders from higher up. This hierarchical style of military affairs is so efficient and common that it is difficult to believe that it was not always the case, but charismatic and successful (and unsuccessful) leaders did not always delegate.

Part of the military re-organization involved designating citizens as foot soldiers who could be called up when necessary. Since they had no formal training, however, they were ineffective. Decades after Alaeddin's failed idea, however, something vaguely similar was proposed. Tomorrow I'll tell you the horrifying story of the Janissaries.

The Ottoman Empire

Begun by (and named for) Osman Ghazi (c.1254 - 1323/4), and inspired (perhaps) by a dream, the Ottoman Empire grew to encompass an enormous territory that continued to expand well after the Middle Ages. The illustration shows in dark green what they controlled up to the 17th century, and the lighter green shows territory that considered the Ottomans their overlords.

Osman was succeeded by capable men. His son, Orhan Ghazi (fl.1324 - 1362), was a competent leader of the clan and continued his father's goal of expansion. The conquest of the important Byzantine fortified city of Bursa in Anatolia was completed by Orhan—Osman was suffering from gout by this time, and left battle to others; he died shortly after—who made Bursa the new Ottoman capital.

The defeat of Constantinople and the Byzantine Empire was an important step to increasing the Ottoman territory and power. A period known as the Byzantine-Ottoman Wars began in 1299 and culminated in the taking of Constantinople in 1453, a year and event that I have written about before.

Orhan captured several areas, including Gallipoli in 13543 (at the time called Kallipolis), getting closer to the European mainland. A three-year siege brought Nicaea under Orhan's control in 1331, and Nicomedia in 1337.

Then Orhan made a bold move: he turned his attention to Karesi (now Balıkesir, in the Marmara region of Turkey). Its ruler had died and the deceased's two sons were fighting over the succession. Orhan claimed he was coming in as a bringer of peace. This sounded good, but Karesi was Muslim, and attacking fellow Muslims was not acceptable.

There was, however, no one strong enough to oppose him. One brother was killed in the fighting, the other was captured, and Orhan took over a large Turkish area. This was the start of expansion to the East.

Fighting between brothers over succession was quite common in the Turkish world (and elsewhere, to be fair). In fact, Orhan had a brother whom some scholars think might even have been older. Rather than being a rival, however, he provided valuable help to Orhan. Tomorrow I want to tell you about Alaeddin Erden Ali Pasha, who (we are told) probably contributed as much to the success of the growing Ottoman Empire as Orhan's military choices.

Osman's Dream

Osman I (c.1254 - 1323), emir of his Turkish clan, married Rabia Bala Hatun (died 1324), daughter of Sheikh Edebali, a religious leader. According to a 15th-century chronicle, Osman had a dream while staying in the house of his father-in-law.

He saw that a moon arose from the holy man's breast and came to sink in his own breast. A tree then sprouted from his navel and its shade compassed the world. Beneath this shade there were mountains, and streams flowed forth from the foot of each mountain. Some people drank from these running waters, others watered gardens, while yet others caused fountains to flow. When Osman awoke he told the story to the holy man, who said 'Osman, my son, congratulations, for God has given the imperial office to you and your descendants and my daughter shall be your wife.

This story was probably created to establish a divine origin for the Ottoman Empire, named after Osman. In order to establish this empire, Osman did not always have to fight—though he was not opposed to doing so. He made alliances with his neighbors regardless of religious or political differences. The group with which he was not about to ally himself was the Mongols. 

After the Battle of Bapheus in c.1301—in which Osman defeated a force of 2000 soldiers—Byzantines started to move out of Anatolia, making Ottoman expansion easier. He expanded north and southwest. taking the city of Bursa in northwestern Turkey after a prolonged siege. Bursa turned into a staging ground for the eventual attack on Constantinople.

The illustration shows the imperial expansion, but in Osman's lifetime only the darkest red area was under his control. Osman died shortly after the conquest of Bursa, but the idea of empire lived on. We'll continue the expansion tomorrow.

Osman I

Osman Ghazi is one of those many figures in history whose impact was large but whose life's details are not well known. We are not even certain of his name, though it gave rise to the name of the empire he founded: Ottoman. Scholars think his name was originally Turkish, something like Atman or Ataman, and was Arabicized to 'Osmān later. A contemporary Byzantine historian refers to him as Atouman.

His birthdate is unknown, but a date of 1254/55 was offered by a 16th-century Ottoman historian. He was said to be born in a town called Söğüt, the capital city of his father's emirate. He would have been raised as any Turkish noble's son was raised: learning archery and falconry, horsemanship and sword fighting. He would have been taught about Islam. His father died in 1280, and Osman's uncle succeeded him as head of the clan.

With Söğüt as his base, he started at some point attacking his Byzantine neighbors, but not challenging any of the other Turkish clans. He defeated a Byzantine force of 2000 soldiers c.1301 at the Battle of Bapheus. Following Bapheus, Osman was able to conquer several towns and fortresses, taking control from the Byzantine Empire.

A Byzantine governor sent a message to the Seljuk sultan, complaining about this young Turk who was upsetting the peaceful balance in the region. The sultan had Osman's uncle arrest Osman and have him brought before the sultan, but he liked what he saw in the dynamic and courageous young man. He sent Osman to a Sufi mystic to wait while the sultan thought about what to do about him. The mystic saw a great future for Osman, put a turban on him, and sent him back to the sultan with the request to make Osman emir and the head of his clan.

As he expanded his borders, not all contact with Byzantines was hostile. As the Turks's major occupation was still shepherding, they needed grazing land. Osman arranged with Byzantine governors that the herds would be allowed to move safely through Byzantine lands. Turks could leave some of their permanent possessions safely stored at a Byzantine fortress, and when the herds came back through later, the Byzantine guardians would receive gifts of dairy products.

Osman showed promise as as a leader, designing administrative systems that transformed the clan from a nomadic to an urban lifestyle. Söğüt was not only an easily defended capital (being on a hill), it was a main route to Constantinople and was along the Silk Road. It was also far enough westward from the Mongol threat that Osman could concentrate on his Turkish neighbors, in many cases absorbing them through treaties or political marriages.

Then came the dream, the dream of empire. According to legend (written in a chronicle long after Osman's death) Osman had a dream that would lead to the forging of the empire named for him. I'll share that story next time.

The Fall of Trebizond

The Trebizond Empire (the orange slice on the southern shore of the Black Sea illustration), founded in 1204 on the shores of the Black Sea by the brothers Alexios and David Comnenos, existed until 1461. When news came of the sack of Constantinople in 1204 by the Fourth Crusade, the brothers considered themselves the likeliest successors to rule the Byzantine Empire. Styling themselves "Megas Comnenos" ("Great Comnenos"), they hoped to restore the Comnenos dynasty to the throne.

This put them into conflict with two other "Byzantine offshoots" that had been formed: the Empire of Nicaea in western Anatolia, ruled by Theodore I Laskaris, and the Despotate of Epirus in Greece, ruled by Michael Comnenos Doukas.

Trebizond also had continual concerns about the Turks, first the Seljuks and then the Ottomans, as well as Constantinople—wanting to bring Trebizond back under its wing—and the Republic of Genoa, who wanted more control of trade on the Black Sea. One of the ways to deal with potential (and actual) hostility was for the emperors of Trebizond to make marital alliances by matching their daughters with foreign nobles. Emperor Alexios IV (1417 - 1429) married two daughters off to two khans of neighboring Muslim empires, and an another daughter to Byzantine Emperor John VIII Paleologos. John II of Trebizond married Eudokia Paleologina, daughter of Byzantine Emperor Michael VIII Paleologos to keep friendly with Constantinople.

The Turkish threat never ended, however, and increased when Osman I of Anatolia and his successors consolidated their people into what became known as the Ottoman Empire. This empire rapidly encompassed the Eastern Mediterranean and the Black Sea countries, and more. When they conquered Constantinople on 29 May 1453, Byzantine culture was overwhelmed. Trebizond realized it would not long last if the Byzantine Empire had been conquered. The penultimate Trebizond emperor, John IV (1429 - 1459), saw the writing on the wall. He sent a message to Florence, offering a union of Roman Catholic and Orthodox Churches to forge an alliance that would provide him aid, but it did not help. He gave his daughter to another khan to try to gain military aid. He asked Georgia for help. None of this would be sufficient.

John's brother David Megas Comnenos came to power in 1459. Trebizond fell completely to the Ottomans in 1461. He and his family were taken to Constantinople, the new Ottoman capital. He and all male members of the family were executed in 1463.

So who were the Ottomans who conquered so much of the world and threatened Western Europe? Let's find out tomorrow.

The Trebizond Empire

Some Byzantine rulers invaded lands far enough from Constantinople that it made sense to establish the territories as separate empires. One such was Trebizond, established in 1204 (a few weeks before Constantinople was sacked by the Fourth Crusade).

Alexios of the Comnenos dynasty (1182 - 1222) and his brother David led an expedition into the area with the help of Queen Tamar of Georgia (mother of George IV and Rusudan). Alexios set himself up as Alexios I Megas Comnenos ("Great Comnenos"). The connection between Alexios and Tamar has puzzled scholars. Alexios and David were supposedly being raised at Tamar's court. A 14th-century Trebizond chronicler referred to Tamar as Alexios' "paternal relative," but that made nothing clear; how she may have been related to Alexios' father is a complete mystery.

Although the two brothers were part of the royal family, they knew they would never be close to the throne. Creating their own kingdom was one way to improve their situation. Why Queen Tamar was willing to help them with troops is unknown. Perhaps she felt having allies in Trebizond would be a helpful buffer state on one side of Georgia.

Situated around the coastline of the Black Sea (the green areas in the illustration), Trebizond started as a prominent Greek colony that mined silver and copper. It was sufficiently distant from Rome and Constantinople that it was not affected by their politics, and developed its own government.

The rulers of Trebizond claimed to be the proper Roman emperors after Constantinople was taken by the Crusaders. That lasted until 1261, when Michael VIII Paleologos recaptured the area and asserted his authority. Michael also brought Trebizond "closer" to its "parent" empire by marrying one of his daughters, Eudokia Paleologina, to John II of Trebizond, a grandson of Alexios I. John II was the ruler when David Narin of Western Georgia tried unsuccessfully to join Trebizond to his part of Georgia.

Despite constant assaults from all around, Trebizond existed as largely independent until 1461, as well as civil strife. I'll relate some of those conflicts tomorrow.

Western Georgia

After King David VI Narin of Georgia took the western half of the kingdom and seceded from Georgia, he became King David I of Imereti (Western Georgia). This was a rejection of the Mongol expansion that controlled the eastern half, with David's cousin King David VII Ulu remaining firmly under the control of the Khans.

Imereti contained important seaports on the Black Sea, with trade routes and easy access to the Byzantine Empire. David I also developed friendly relations with a Mongol "offshoot" called the Golden Horde. He also was friendly to the Bahri Dynasty of Egypt, Mamluk rulers who succeeded the Ayyubids.

Relationships could be fickle, however. He offered sanctuary to Teguder, a commander under Hulagu Khan who had rebelled against Abaqa Khan, but when Teguder's men started harassing the people of Imereti, David allied with Abaqa's general who had pursued Teguder. Then Abaqa decided to bring Imereti back under Mongol control, and David's brief alliance resulted in fighting (successfully) two Mongol expeditions in the 1270s.

David had his own ideas of expansion. Around the Black Sea was the empire of Trebizond, established by a Byzantine Emperor. David decided he should take it off Constantinople's hands, and took an army there in April 1282 while its current ruler, Emperor John II Comnenos, was away in Constantinople. He managed to control a few areas, but not the empire. David did later help John's half-sister Theodora seize the crown from John. John restored himself to the throne a few months later and Theodora disappeared from the historical record in 1285. It is suggested she might have found sanctuary in Western Georgia.

At the age of 67, David died of natural causes and was interred at the Gelati Monastery (see illustration) on a hill overlooking his capital of Kutaisi. He had married twice. With his first wife he had three sons, who succeeded as kings of Georgia and Western Georgia. He had a son by his second wife, the daughter of Emperor Michael VIII Paleologos.

David's interest in expanding to Trebizond reminds me that, although it has been mentioned, readers might need more detail to understand its significance. Tomorrow we'll look at the Empire of Trebizond.

The Two Kings David

When Queen Rusudan of Georgia died in 1245, Georgia looked for a new ruler. Her son, David, had been sent to Karakoram to be recognized as heir by the Great Khan of the Mongols, Batu Khan, but no one knew how long he would be gone. Her nephew, David, by her predecessor brother King George IV, she had sent to be incarcerated at the court of her son-in-law, Kaykhusraw II, who was married to Rusudan's daughter, Tamar. (She feared her nephew would try to usurp the throne.)

The nephew David was considered illegitimate by the Georgian nobles. His father had seduced a married woman of non-noble status, brought her to court, and had a son by her in 1215. George was forced to return her to her husband (sending David to Rusudan to be raised), but refused any other suggestion of marriage by his councilors. 

So far as the Georgian nobles could tell, the only available heir was the illegitimate David, since they knew where he was. He was also at that time 30 years old and able to understand his duties. He was crowned in 1245 as David VII, and known as David Ulu, "David the Senior."

A year later, Rusudan's son David returned from Karakoram with the blessing of Batu Khan. The 21-year-old became co-King with his cousin, given an earlier regnal number because of his precedence (son of the immediate previous ruler and born within wedlock) as King David VI Narin ("David the Junior").

The two managed to work together well until 1259. David VI rebelled independently against their Mongol overlords. It did not take many battles before he saw the error of his choices. Fleeing to western Georgia, where the Mongols did not have so much influence, he seceded from the rest of Georgia, being crowned in the western city of Kutaisi. (Kutaisi had been the capital of Georgia from c.1008 - 1122, when Tbilisi became the capital.)

Now, as King David I of Imereti (Western Georgia), he had control over several important ports on the Black Sea, as well as passes through the Caucasus Mountains, giving Western Georgia important trade routes.

Two years after David Narin's rebellion, David Ulu tried as well to become independent, joining his brother in Western Georgia. The two could not manage to agree on various policies, however, and David Ulu returned to Tbilisi in 1262, where he was forced to surrender to Hulagu Khan. Eastern Georgia was now a vassal, rather than an ally, of the Mongols.

Western Georgia was a different story, which will continue tomorrow.

Queen Rusudan

Yesterday's post on the hoped-for Mongol alliance with the West mentioned a Georgian queen who saved her people from the Mongols. That was Rusudan (1194 - 1245), who took the only option available to avoid total destruction.

On 18 January 1223, George IV of the Kingdom of Georgia died from complications from a wound he received fighting Mongols. His only son, David, was only eight years old and being raised by George's sister, Rusudan. David was too young to rule (and also of questionable legitimacy), and the throne passed to Rusudan.

Georgia was surrounded by Muslim and Mongol threats, and Rusudan was considered a beautiful woman whose hand in marriage was much sought after by nearby Muslim nobles. Against invasion by a group known as the Khwarezmians, she made an alliance with the neighboring Seljuk Turkish rulers, but the Khwarezmians defeated the Georgians before help could arrive. Rusudan married Ghias ad-Din, the son of a Seljuk emir, who was ordered by his father to convert to Christianity in order to marry Rusudan. They had two children, Tamar and David.

The Khwarezmian invasion and occupation was followed by the Mongols, who entered Georgia in 1235 and controlled all of Georgia within four years. The Mongol army had a simple policy: submit and pay tribute, or the Mongols would kill every living being in the occupied territory to ensure no chance of insurrection. They did not ask twice.

Queen Rusudan ordered any of her army remaining to stand down and submit to the Mongols. An annual tribute of 50,000 gold pieces was required. Georgia also had to agree to provide 80,000 soldiers to join the Mongol army on its quest to subjugate the world.

Tamar was married to a Seljuk sultan, Kaykhusraw II, and later converted from Eastern Orthodox Christianity to Islam, taking the name Gurju Khatun. Queen Rusudan, since she had her own children who might succeed her, feared that her nephew David might try to take the throne. She sent him to Kaykhusraw to be imprisoned. Meanwhile, she sent her own son to the Mongol court in Karakoram to be recognized as her heir by the Great Khan, but she died in 1245 before he returned.

In her son's absence, and since the Georgians knew where Rusudan's nephew was, George's son David was recalled and named King David VII. Then Rusudan's son returned, and a decision had to be made. Tomorrow we'll see what happened next.

The Great Mongol Hope

Pope Honorius III (fl.1216 - 1227), in a letter dated 20 June 1221, referred to "forces coming from the Far East to rescue the Holy Land." This was solely speculation, based on old legends of Prester John, a reported Christian king in the Far East who would come to the aid of the Crusades. Stories of the expansion of the Mongol Empire caused some Europeans to believe that the Mongols were Prester John's people, and an important alliance would be forthcoming.

An alliance between Western Europe and the Mongols was not a ridiculous idea. Mongols were already familiar with Christianity: there were Nestorian Christians in the Mongol court (a few decades later, William Rubruck would meet several while traveling). Nestorianism was condemned as heresy at the 431 Council of Ephesus, but at least they weren't Muslims.

Muslims were a problem for Western Christians; they were also enemies of the Mongols. While the Fifth Crusade was besieging Damietta in Egypt in June 2018, stories of Genghis Khan's successful conquests sparked the belief that this was Prester John or a descendant heading westward to aid the Crusade. The hoped-for arrival of a powerful army to help the Crusade did not appear, but attempts were made afterward to form an alliance with Genghis and his descendants.

Pope Innocent IV (fl.1243 - 1254) was the first to write to the Khans, sending letters with envoys that would take years to find their recipients and return with replies. Alliances were hampered by the deaths of Genghis and his successor Ögedei (Innocent's letter never got to Ögedei). The next Great Khan, Güyük Khan, sent a less-than-satisfying reply.

Despite their common enemy in the Muslim world, the difficulty was that the popes wanted obedience to themselves as pope, expecting Mongols to convert to Christianity, and the Mongol Khans expected obedience to them as secular rulers, demanding homage.

Military cooperation was still a possibility—assuming the pope's demands for conversion stayed out of the negotiations. Öljaitü (fl.1282 - 1316) wrote in 1305 to Philip IV of France, Pope Clement V, and Edward I of England (see illustration for the letter in the French archives, the only copy extant), suggesting military collaboration, assuring him that Europeans could travel safely through their lands:

"Now all of us, Timur Khagan, Tchapar, Toctoga, Togba and ourselves, main descendants of Gengis Khan, all of us, descendants and brothers, are reconciled through the inspiration and the help of God. So that, from Nangkiyan [China] in the Orient, to Lake Dala our people are united and the roads are open." [link]

Mongols by this time had converted to Islam, but still were open to allowing Christians free access to the Holy Land. That did not mean, however, that the Mongols were not bent on expanding their empire as much as possible. One of their conquests was the large Kingdom of Georgia, whose queen submitted in order to save the lives of her people. I'll tell you that story next time.

Charlemagne and the Arabic World

At the end of yesterday's post on the Auld Alliance I mentioned that France (or the Franks) had formed earlier alliances, some of them seemingly more unusual than that with Scotland. If the cultures of the French and the Scots were different, imagine the cultural divide between the Franks of the 8th and 9th centuries and the Abbasid Caliphate.

In the Life of Charlemagne written by Einhard, and a few other Latin/Frankish sources, we find references to the Carolingians reaching out to the Abbasids. The Franks had clashed with the predecessors of the Abbasids, the Umayyad Caliphate, most notably at the Battle of Tours in 732. The Umayyads were finally expelled from Gaul by Pepin the Short.

After the collapse of the Umayyads and the rise of the Abbasids, Pepin reached out to Caliph al-Mansur. The Carolingians were powerful enough in Western Europe at that time that the Abbasids were open to the possibilities of an alliance; Umayyads still existed on the Iberian Peninsula, posing a potential threat to the southern border of the Carolingians and the western border of the Abbasids.

A Carolingian embassy visited Baghdad in 765 and returned with gifts after three years, followed by an Abbasid embassy to France in 768. Arabic coins from that era are found throughout the Carolingian world, and Arabic gold was exchanged for materials like timber and iron; also, slaves went eastward.

The alliance included a request from the Abbasids in 777 for military aid against the Umayyads in Cordoba. Charlemagne crossed the Pyrenees into Iberia in 778 with a large force, joining in Zaragoza with the Abbasid forces of Sulaymaniyah al-Arabi in an attempt to reconquer the peninsula. This was unsuccessful, and on Charlemagne's return to the north he was ambushed disastrously by Basques at Roncevaux.

Charlemagne did not give up on an alliance, however, and had a strong relationship with Harun al-Rashid, who gifted Charlemagne an elephant, recorded in the Royal Frankish Annals as Abul-Abbas. A few embassies went back and forth between the courts of Charlemagne and al-Rashid. (The illustration is of al-Rashid receiving a Frankish embassy.)

A few centuries later, France saw value in another alliance to the east, with the Mongol Empire. The reason and the result will be tomorrow's topic.

France & Scotland Alliance

France and Scotland were two very different countries: different climates, languages, cuisines, cultures. They had one important thing in common: both had problems with England wanting trying to rule over them. The term "Auld Alliance" (Scots for "Old Alliance") refers to the two countries' agreement to work together, and it began in 1295.

The motivation for the Auld Alliance came in 1290 upon the death of Margaret, the Maid of Norway. King Edward I of England decided it was time to extend his authority over Scotland. To combat this, Scotland's nobles looked for alliances, and France was an obvious choice.

France and England were at odds. By 1294 they were on the brink of war because France had seized Gascony from English possession. A Scottish delegation to Paris signed a treaty on 23 October 1295. This worked in France's favor, since France now could have England harried in its own island without France needing to cross the English Channel. Scotland's desire to wage war would draw English forces far away from France and divide England's attention.

Unfortunately, a year later, Edward invaded Scotland, beginning the Wars of Scottish Independence. Edward was too powerful for Scotland, and Scotland had many defeats, with Margaret's successor, John Balliol, captured and imprisoned in the Tower of London. Fighting between England and France ended—although "paused" is a more accurate term—in 1299, and Edward could focus on crushing Scottish Independence. Fortunately for Scotland, the efforts of Robert the Bruce and the ineptitude of Edward II gave Scotland its best chance at freeing itself from English subjugation.

The Auld Alliance became useful in 1332, however, when Edward III decided to assert authority over both Scotland and France. Philip VI of France sent 10 ships with aid to Scotland, but they never arrived due to a storm. Philip sent £1000 to Scotland to aid the Scottish defenders, and he offered sanctuary to David II of Scotland, who was only 10 years old. David and his extended family accepted the offer and were given Chateau Gaillard as a residence.

The Auld Alliance has never formally been revoked. In 1942, Charles de Gaulle described it as the "oldest alliance in the world." (The illustration is of a plaque at the Scottish Free French House in Edinburgh.)

Although they had many differences, France's alliance with Scotland was not the oddest "mismatch" they made with another culture. Tomorrow I'll tell you about one or two others they made earlier than the Auld Alliance.

The Clan Buchanan

The Clan Buchanan, one of the oldest Highland clans, can date their start to 1016 on the banks of Loch Lomond. Their origin story says that they began with Anselan O Kyan of the Irish clan Ó Catháin, one of the sons of the King of Ulster, who was given lands to the east of Loch Lomond by Malcolm II as thanks for help with the Danes.

This Irish origin was challenged by the modern Council of the Clan Buchanan Society. DNA testing and other historical records disprove the Irish connection. DNA matches show the family tracing back to the Loch Lomond area to 1000CE and even earlier. There is no evidence for the existence of a prince Anselan O Kyan of Ulster. The DNA project showed a strong link to the Clan Gregor, with a possible common ancestor of the two clans c.400CE.

The Buchanans have another part of history to live down. Maurice Buchanan married the grand-daughter of Sir John of Menteith, a Scottish nobleman and sheriff of Dunbarton Castle who betrayed Sir William Wallace to King Edward I of England in 1305. King Robert I of Scotland imprisoned Sir John, but Maurice Buchanan was one of the people who convinced the king to release the traitor.

Clan Buchanan supported Robert the Bruce during the Wars of Scottish Independence, helping Robert escape in 1306. They also fought the English alongside the French at the Battle of Baugé in 1421, and again at the Battle of Verneuil in 1424.

What was the link between France and Scotland? I'll talk about that next time.

Loch Lomond

There is more to Loch Lomond than just being jealous of the notoriety of Loch Ness. In an 11th-century version of the Historia Brittonum, it is listed as the first of several marvels of Britain:

The first wonder is the lake Lumonoy. In there are sixty islands, and men dwell there, and sixty rocks encircle it, with an eagle's nest on each rock. There are also sixty rivers flowing into that place, and nothing goes out of there to the sea except one river, which is called Lenin.

Loch Lomond, which drains south via the River Leven, has more than 30 islands of various sizes, and they are not surrounded by 60 rocks.

Some of those islands were artificial. People arrived in the area 5000 years ago, during the Neolithic Era, and built up "islands" over the water for safer living. These are called crannogs, and could be a structure on stone pillars or built on wooden stakes (see illustration). A crannog in Lomon called "The Kitchen" was a meeting place for Clan Buchanan from 1225 onwards.

Defense was also the reason why the Romans in the 1st century CE built forts near and around Loch Lomond against the Highland tribes. The need for defense never faded: early Medieval Viking raids dragged their boats overland to put them in the Loch and attack and sack several of its islands.

The loch and its neighboring mountain, Ben Lomond, are part of an area called the Trossachs. The Trossachs were home to Robert the Bruce and William Wallace. The signet ring of Rob Roy Macgregor was a bloodstone from Loch Lomond.

A later legend of the area was that of Reverend Robert Kirk, who researched myths and legends and then wrote a book called The Secret Commonwealth of elves, fauns & fairies. He died before it was published, and sparked his very own legend that the fairies, angry that he revealed their secrets, whisked him away.

The Clan Buchanan, mentioned above, was one of the oldest Highland clans, and we're going to look at their origin tomorrow.

The Marvels of England, Part Two

In Part One we read about items in the Historia Brittonum that concerned King Arthur and the city of Bath. The first one listed of the Mirabilia ("Marvels") seems to have taken a standard British geographical feature and exaggerated it:

The first wonder is the lake Lumonoy. In there are sixty islands, and men dwell there, and sixty rocks encircle it, with an eagle's nest on each rock. There are also sixty rivers flowing into that place, and nothing goes out of there to the sea except one river, which is called Lenin.

Yes, parts of Britain had a lot of lakes and isles, although much of what was wetland has been drained for farmland and development. This might refer to Loch Lomond, which drains south via the River Leven. Loch Lomond was said to contain 60 islands, but it's closer to 30, and as for the rocks and eagles and 60 rivers...

The final wonder listed is that of the Cruc Mawr Tomb:

There is another wonder in the region which is called Cereticiaun. There is there a mountain, which is given the name Cruc Maur, and there is a grave on the summit of it, and every man whosoever that will come to the grave and stretch himself out next to it, however short they will be, the grave and the man have been found within one length, and, if it will be that the man is short and small, similarly also it is found the length of the grave is like the height of the man, and, if he will be long and tall, even if he might be of length four cubits near the height of every man so the tumulus is discovered. And every wanderer who's up to weariness, the man will bow three bows near that, he will not be beyond himself up to his day of death, and he will not be weighted down again by any weariness, even if he will go alone to the boundaries of the cosmos.

Cruc Mawr has been identified as likely a hill near Cardigan; the name of that hill is remembered in the name of a farm on the hillside: Crugmore. This size-changing grave reminds us of yesterday's Tomb of Amr, Arthur's son, which changes in length each time someone tries to measure it. There is no simple explanation for the belief in this, especially the last part about bowing and being free from weariness for the rest of one's life. Gerald of Wales also mentions this marvel, although he probably got it from the Historia itself, not by independent research.

I've rarely written about geographical features, but next time, how about we look at Loch Lomond and some of the legends and characters connected to its area?

The Marvels of England, Part One

Two later versions of the 9th century Historia Brittonum contained a section that is referred to as Mirabilia, "marvels" or "miracles." These legends were repeated by others who borrowed from the Historia and became part of the fabric of the "Matter of Britain" in people's minds. A couple of them are legends of King Arthur, of whom the Historia had a lot to say.

The 12th of the Mirabilia listed is about the Cairn of Cabal, Arthur's dog:

There is another wonderful thing in the region which is called Bucit. There is there a mound of stones and one stone placed on top has a footprint of a dog on it. When hunting the porker Troynt, stamped Cabal (who was the dog of the soldier Arthur) the step in the stone, and afterward Arthur gathered together stones under the stone on which was the track of his dog, and it is called Carn Cabal. And men come, and they take the stone in their hands through the space of the day and night, even so, in the daylight of the following day it is come upon on top of his collection.

There was a medieval cantrev (a Welsh unit of land similar to the English Hundred) named Builth, within which is a hill called Carn Gafallt. There are three Bronze Age burial mounds at the top, constructed of stones loosely held together. Depressions made by small stones falling out of place could be taken to resemble a canine paw.

The marvel that follows this is about the Tomb of Amr, Arthur's son:

There is another miracle in the region which is called Ercing. A sepulcra is shown near a spring which is given the name Licat Amr, and the name of the hero who's grave is in the tumulus, it follows, was called Amr. He was the son of Arthur the soldier, and he himself has killed him in that very place and done the burying. And men come to measure the tumulus in length: sometimes it is six feet; sometimes nine; sometimes twelve; sometimes fifteen. For whatever the measurement you will measure it in such a succession, again you will not find it with the same measurement; and even I have made confirmation on my own.

Later stories of Arthur refer to the Wicked Day of Destiny when Arthur defeats his son, Medraut or Mordred, at the Battle of Camlann. Those are later versions of the son's name than what is found in the Historia. A mound south of Hereford, England, called Wormelow Tump, is sometimes pointed out as the burial place of Amr.

Another marvel (number three in the list) is the Hot Pool:

Wonder three - the hot pool, which is in the region of the Huich and encircled by a wall made of brick and stone and to that place men go during all seasons to be washed and to each, as it may have pleased them, the bath thus may be made according to his own will: if he may have willed, the bath will be cold, if warm, it will be warm.

This one is a little easier to explain. The "region of the Huich" refers to the Hwicce, Saxons who lived in the area that includes Bath, a place then and now known for its hot springs.

I'll share a few more of the Mirabilia tomorrow. See you then.

The Historia Brittonum

In a previous post I mentioned the old idea that Britain was founded by people who fled the Fall of Troy. This idea came from the Historia Brittonum, "The History of the Britons," which was produced c.828/9CE. It explains that the name "Britain" comes from Brutus, descendant of Aeneas. As fanciful as the Historia was, it influenced chroniclers and writers for centuries afterward.

It is the earliest source to describe Arthur not as a king but as a military leader, a dux bellorum, "leader/duke of wars":

Then it was, that the magnanimous Arthur, with all the kings and military force of Britain, fought against the Saxons. And though there were many more noble than himself, yet he was twelve times chosen their commander, and was as often conqueror. The first battle in which he was engaged, was at the mouth of the river Gleni.‎

A legend that Arthur carried the image of Mary into battle comes from this as well. Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae ("History of the Kings of Britain") drew heavily on the Historia.

This is also the source of the Vortigern story, who allowed the Saxons to settle in Britain and married Hengist's daughter. Vortigern's failed attempt to build a fortress led to his priests advising to sprinkle the foundation with the blood of a boy who never had a father. Vortigern finds Ambrosius, who instead prophesies that the foundations are falling due to two dragons fighting underground.

Unsurprisingly, the work blends historical facts with legends. A copyist's note added to the manuscript claims it was written "no earlier than the fourth year of the reign of King Mermenus," who can be identified as Merfyn Frych ap Gwriad, king of Gwynedd (reigned 825 - 844). A line in chapter four also dates it as "from the Passion of Christ 796 years have passed. But from his Incarnation are 831 years."

The illustration above shows "of Nennius" in Latin, and that authorship has been disputed. The name Nennius does appear on some copies of the manuscript, but the consensus is that it was added in the 11th century, and that the original author/compiler of the Historia is unknown. Still, Nennius' name is usually attached to the work when it is discussed.

One of the sections is called the Mirabilia, the "Wonders"; I'm going to share some of the lesser-known legends of Britain starting tomorrow.

The Poetry of Taliesin

Taliesin (6th century) came a legendary figure of whom many stories are told and to whom many poems are ascribed—(almost) all of it fiction. It is believed by some scholars, however, that some of the poetry that mentions 6th century events or figures are likely the work of a real figure of that name who existed.

Rheged was a kingdom in the north of Great Britain, a Brittonic-speaking region in terms of post-Roman and Early Medieval Eras. One of its kings was Urien, mentioned in the Historia Brittonum and in several poems praising him. (Urien's grandson was St. Mungo.) A poem by Taliesin praising Urien at the Battle of Catraeth—and believed to be original—is offered here.

It is called "The Battle of Gwenystrad" [source].

The men of Catraeth arose with the dawn,
About the Guledig, of work a profitable merchant.
This Urien, without mockery is his regret.
He sustains the sovereignty and its demands.
Warlike, the grandeur of a perfect prince of baptism.
The men of Prydain hurtful in battle array,
At Gwenystrad, continuously offerers of battle.
Protected neither the field nor woods
The people with shelter when tribulation comes.
Like the wave loud roaring over the beach,
I saw valiant men in battle array,
And after the morning, battle-mangled flesh.
I saw a tumult of three limits slain,
A shout active in front was heard.
In defending Gwenystrad was seen
A mound and slanting ground obstructing.
In the pass of the ford I saw men gory-tinted,
Dropping their arms before the pallid miserable ones.
They join in peace as they were losers.
Hand on the cross they wail on the gravel bank of Garanwynyon.
The tribes revel over the rising wave.
The billows protect the hair of their captures.
I saw men of splendid progress
With blood that clotted on the garments,
Toiling energetically and incessantly in battle.
The covering battle, where there was no flight, when contrived.
The ruler of Reged, I am astonished at what was dared.
I saw a brow covered with rage on Urien,
When he furiously attacked his foes at the white stone
Of Galystem. His rage was a blade;
The bucklered men were sustained in need.
May a desire of battle come on Eurwyn.

And until I fail in old age,
In the sore necessity of death,
May I not be smiling,
If I praise not Urien.

This page tries to locate the battle geographically. 

Taliesin's existence is mentioned as one of five chief British poets in the Hitoria Brittonum. Although I've referenced the Historia several times, I haven't spent time explaining the pros and cons of this early source. Let's start talking about that tomorrow.

Chief of Bards

The 9th-century Historia Brittonum mentions five especially renowned British poets, one of whom is Taliesin. In the 12th century he was considered the author of a great number of romantic legends. The Middle Welsh manuscript called the Book of Taliesin from the 14th century has 56 poems. Scholars think 11 of them may date back to the 6th century, and may actually have been written by the figure known to history as Taliesin.

We know little of his life (of course), but the odes to King Urien Rheged, who died c.550, give us a time frame for an early bard. There are poems to other rulers of that era, suggesting that Taliesin may have performed for at least three kings. His life, however, contains (again, of course) many stories that cross over into fantasy and legend. His double-birth is the most profound of these.

According to a 16th-century account, the Hanes Taliesin (Welsh: "Tale of Taliesin"), his given name was Gwion Bach, and he was a servant to Ceridwen, an enchantress married to a noble in the time of King Arthur. She wanted her ugly son to gain respect, and so created a potion of inspiration so that he would become a famous bard. The potion needed stirring for a year and a day, and that task was given to Gwion Bach. At the completion of the stirring, three drops from the cauldron landed on Gwion's thumb.

Because it was hot, Gwion immediately put his thumb in his mouth, and received the inspiration and wisdom intended for Ceridwen's son. Knowing Ceridwen would be furious, he fled. She pursued, so he turned himself into a hare. Ceridwen turned herself into a greyhound to catch him, so he became a fish and leapt into the river. She became an otter, so he turned himself into a bird to fly away. She turned herself into a hawk, so he fled into a barn and turned himself into a single grain to hide. She became a hen and ate the grain.

The result was that she became pregnant. Realizing that she would give birth to Gwion, she resolved to kill the child, but he was so beautiful at birth that she could not bring herself to do it. She instead put him in a basket and threw him into the river.

The baby and basket got caught in a weir set up to catch salmon by Elffin, son of a lord, who raised the child and named him Taliesin. (The illustration above is an 1897 work by F.H.Townsend.) Taliesin grew up possessing the wisdom and talent derived from the potion ingested by his previous self.

That is the origin story of the legendary Taliesin. Tomorrow we'll look at the poetry that might actually be ascribed to the real Taliesin.

Druid Culture

The Classical Era sources we have for druid culture agree that druids were important in Celtic society. Julius Caesar wrote that the druids had an elected leader who ruled until death, referred to in later literature often as an "arch-druid."

Druids were highly respected for the learning and wisdom. Caesar said that they studied "the stars and their movements, the size of the cosmos and the earth, the nature of the world, and the powers of immortal deities." (Despite this sophistication that mirrored the Roman world, Caesar also described the frequency of human sacrifice, likely in order to paint them as inferior to the civilized Romans, and therefore worthy of conquest.)

Other classical writers, Diodorus Siculus and Strabo, claimed the druids were so revered that they could stop an impending battle between armies simply by intervening. They were philosophers and knowledgeable about religion. Another Roman, Pomponius Mela, writing around the same time as Julius Caesar, made the first remarks about how their learning was conducted in secret, taking place in caves or hidden in forests.

Caesar claimed it could take 20 years for a druid to properly learn the required lore, because nothing was committed to writing, but needed to be thoroughly memorized. Yes, there was a written language in Gaul, but there exists today no single written line of "druidic lore" that can be verified as authentic. The forgeries of Edward Williams/Iolo Morganwg do not count.

In the centuries after the conquest of Gaul, the Romans took measures to wipe out the druids. Pliny the Elder wrote that Emperor Tiberius (14-37CE) banned druidic practices (and soothsayers) in order to stop human sacrifice.

Druids seem to have survived in the British Isles a little longer, until Christianization spread. Their role as carriers of oral tradition and law did not disappear, however: it survived with a different name for the purveyors. That name was "bard." Tomorrow we'll look at one of the early and most famous bards, of whom some say it can be argued that he was one of the last druids: Taliesin. See you then.

About Druids

One of the earliest recorded descriptions of druids comes from Julius Caesar, who encountered them in the conquest of Gaul in the 1st century BCE. In Book 6 of his Commentarii de Bello Gallico ("Commentaries on the Gallic War"), he has a few chapters on the social structure of Gaul. He lists two groups that were prominent in Gallic society, druids and nobles. Unfortunately, we should be careful what we take as fact, since a lot of what he wrote was hearsay, and some comes from an account a century earlier by another politician, Posidonius.

Posidonius decided in the 90s BCE to travel the world. He studied the Celts in Gaul, describing customs like nailing skulls to doorways as trophies. The Celts told him that they honored druids, whose descriptions caused Posidonius to describe druids as philosophers. Posidonius' writing on the lands of the Celts is lost, but was quoted by others, such as Caesar.

Julius Caesar commented on the role of human sacrifice, including of innocent people, and the option of burning alive hundreds of people to protect the larger population from famine or plague. The legend of the "wicker man" (seen above), entrapping several people in the wicker-made construct and burning the whole, comes from one line of Caesar's, which is believed to have been inspired by the stories of Posidonius:

They have images of immense size, the limbs of which are framed with twisted twigs and filled with living persons. These being set on fire, those within are encompassed by the flames.

The 1st-century Greek geographer Strabo also mentions this practice, saying that innocent people would be sacrificed inside if there were no criminals handy to use.

Caesar also discusses the divinities to whom the druids sacrificed, mentioning Dis (the Roman god of the underworld), from whom Caesar says the Celts believe they were descended. Another was the goddess Brigid, associated with healing and smithcraft and nature (among other things), who may have been Christianized centuries later as St. Brigid.

We'll go into more of the civil culture of druids tomorrow.

Faking Medieval Literature

During the Celtic Revival, a Welsh stonemason named Edward Williams (1747 - 1826) took an interest in collecting old manuscripts and began writing his own poetry. After moving to London, he joined a Welsh literary society, but later returned to Wales and farming (at which he was unsuccessful). In the 1780s, he decided to help "revive" early Welsh literature by forging it, and he adopted the name Iolo Morganwg. His collection was later published in 26 volumes as the Iolo Manuscripts by his son, Taliesin, whom he named after an early medieval bard.

To be fair, not everything in the Iolo Manuscipts was a forgery. He wanted to prove, however, that a lot of Welsh culture—particularly druidism—survived the Roman Conquest of Britain, and his evidence was manuscripts that he claimed to have uncovered himself. His first foray into re-educating a modern world on his finds was by publishing a collection of poetry by a known 14th-century creator of love poetry and erotica, Dafydd ap Gwilym (c.1315 - c.1350). He included hitherto unknown poems of Dafydd which were Edward's first published forgeries.

This collection was very successful, and Edward moved back to London in 1791 where he founded Gorsedd (Welsh for "throne"), a community of Welsh writers and poets. (The site of its founding is commemorated by the plaque shown above.) This society had ranks:

• Ovates, who wear green robes (novices)
• Bards, who wear blue robes (seasoned members)
• Druids, who wear white robes (the highest rank)

Wales has an annual music and poetry competition, the Eisteddfod. In 1884, the Transactions of the Royal National Eisteddfod of Wales made remarks on Edward's published work:

The records thus furnished, take us back to a time of Prydain ab Aedd Mawr, who is said to have lived about a thousand years before the Christian era, and who established the Gorsedd as an institution to perpetuate the works of the poets and musicians.

Of course, Edward's records were made up, but they supported the idea of a Celtic Revival and mis-educated people for generations. Gorsedd also made much of Stonehenge and other circles of standing stones. Occurrences of Eisteddfods often created circles of standing stones to mark the event, but these days a set of artificial stones is used and set up wherever the Eisteddfod takes place, only to be put away until the following year.

But what of the druids? Do we really know anything about them, especially since they left no written records? Let's delve into them next time.