The Ottoman Empire

Begun by (and named for) Osman Ghazi (c.1254 - 1323/4), and inspired (perhaps) by a dream, the Ottoman Empire grew to encompass an enormous territory that continued to expand well after the Middle Ages. The illustration shows in dark green what they controlled up to the 17th century, and the lighter green shows territory that considered the Ottomans their overlords.

Osman was succeeded by capable men. His son, Orhan Ghazi (fl.1324 - 1362), was a competent leader of the clan and continued his father's goal of expansion. The conquest of the important Byzantine fortified city of Bursa in Anatolia was completed by Orhan—Osman was suffering from gout by this time, and left battle to others; he died shortly after—who made Bursa the new Ottoman capital.

The defeat of Constantinople and the Byzantine Empire was an important step to increasing the Ottoman territory and power. A period known as the Byzantine-Ottoman Wars began in 1299 and culminated in the taking of Constantinople in 1453, a year and event that I have written about before.

Orhan captured several areas, including Gallipoli in 13543 (at the time called Kallipolis), getting closer to the European mainland. A three-year siege brought Nicaea under Orhan's control in 1331, and Nicomedia in 1337.

Then Orhan made a bold move: he turned his attention to Karesi (now Balıkesir, in the Marmara region of Turkey). Its ruler had died and the deceased's two sons were fighting over the succession. Orhan claimed he was coming in as a bringer of peace. This sounded good, but Karesi was Muslim, and attacking fellow Muslims was not acceptable.

There was, however, no one strong enough to oppose him. One brother was killed in the fighting, the other was captured, and Orhan took over a large Turkish area. This was the start of expansion to the East.

Fighting between brothers over succession was quite common in the Turkish world (and elsewhere, to be fair). In fact, Orhan had a brother whom some scholars think might even have been older. Rather than being a rival, however, he provided valuable help to Orhan. Tomorrow I want to tell you about Alaeddin Erden Ali Pasha, who (we are told) probably contributed as much to the success of the growing Ottoman Empire as Orhan's military choices.

Osman's Dream

Osman I (c.1254 - 1323), emir of his Turkish clan, married Rabia Bala Hatun (died 1324), daughter of Sheikh Edebali, a religious leader. According to a 15th-century chronicle, Osman had a dream while staying in the house of his father-in-law.

He saw that a moon arose from the holy man's breast and came to sink in his own breast. A tree then sprouted from his navel and its shade compassed the world. Beneath this shade there were mountains, and streams flowed forth from the foot of each mountain. Some people drank from these running waters, others watered gardens, while yet others caused fountains to flow. When Osman awoke he told the story to the holy man, who said 'Osman, my son, congratulations, for God has given the imperial office to you and your descendants and my daughter shall be your wife.

This story was probably created to establish a divine origin for the Ottoman Empire, named after Osman. In order to establish this empire, Osman did not always have to fight—though he was not opposed to doing so. He made alliances with his neighbors regardless of religious or political differences. The group with which he was not about to ally himself was the Mongols. 

After the Battle of Bapheus in c.1301—in which Osman defeated a force of 2000 soldiers—Byzantines started to move out of Anatolia, making Ottoman expansion easier. He expanded north and southwest. taking the city of Bursa in northwestern Turkey after a prolonged siege. Bursa turned into a staging ground for the eventual attack on Constantinople.

The illustration shows the imperial expansion, but in Osman's lifetime only the darkest red area was under his control. Osman died shortly after the conquest of Bursa, but the idea of empire lived on. We'll continue the expansion tomorrow.

Osman I

Osman Ghazi is one of those many figures in history whose impact was large but whose life's details are not well known. We are not even certain of his name, though it gave rise to the name of the empire he founded: Ottoman. Scholars think his name was originally Turkish, something like Atman or Ataman, and was Arabicized to 'Osmān later. A contemporary Byzantine historian refers to him as Atouman.

His birthdate is unknown, but a date of 1254/55 was offered by a 16th-century Ottoman historian. He was said to be born in a town called Söğüt, the capital city of his father's emirate. He would have been raised as any Turkish noble's son was raised: learning archery and falconry, horsemanship and sword fighting. He would have been taught about Islam. His father died in 1280, and Osman's uncle succeeded him as head of the clan.

With Söğüt as his base, he started at some point attacking his Byzantine neighbors, but not challenging any of the other Turkish clans. He defeated a Byzantine force of 2000 soldiers c.1301 at the Battle of Bapheus. Following Bapheus, Osman was able to conquer several towns and fortresses, taking control from the Byzantine Empire.

A Byzantine governor sent a message to the Seljuk sultan, complaining about this young Turk who was upsetting the peaceful balance in the region. The sultan had Osman's uncle arrest Osman and have him brought before the sultan, but he liked what he saw in the dynamic and courageous young man. He sent Osman to a Sufi mystic to wait while the sultan thought about what to do about him. The mystic saw a great future for Osman, put a turban on him, and sent him back to the sultan with the request to make Osman emir and the head of his clan.

As he expanded his borders, not all contact with Byzantines was hostile. As the Turks's major occupation was still shepherding, they needed grazing land. Osman arranged with Byzantine governors that the herds would be allowed to move safely through Byzantine lands. Turks could leave some of their permanent possessions safely stored at a Byzantine fortress, and when the herds came back through later, the Byzantine guardians would receive gifts of dairy products.

Osman showed promise as as a leader, designing administrative systems that transformed the clan from a nomadic to an urban lifestyle. Söğüt was not only an easily defended capital (being on a hill), it was a main route to Constantinople and was along the Silk Road. It was also far enough westward from the Mongol threat that Osman could concentrate on his Turkish neighbors, in many cases absorbing them through treaties or political marriages.

Then came the dream, the dream of empire. According to legend (written in a chronicle long after Osman's death) Osman had a dream that would lead to the forging of the empire named for him. I'll share that story next time.