The Sixth Ecumenical Council

The Sixth Ecumenical Council was called to settle a matter that had bothered the Byzantine Church for several years. The issue was Monothelitism, the idea that Jesus only had a single nature to him, either human or divine. There were lots of clergy who felt that he had a dual nature.

The Emperor Constans II had been so annoyed (or uninterested) in the debate over the two that he published a decree that the issue should not even be discussed. His son, Constantine IV, decided that the issue needed resolution, but that the emperor was not qualified to make that decision (and suffer the wrath of the losing side), so he wrote to the pope in Rome to find a way to solve the problem. Pope Agatho took up the challenge with several synods in the west that came up with an answer, which was then taken to Constantinople for the Sixth Ecumenical Council (which was also known as the Third Council of Constantinople, as depicted above in a painting in a church in Bucharest).

The imperial palace hosted 37 bishops on 7 November 680, with the patriarchs of Antioch and Constantinople. Patriarchs of Alexandria and Jerusalem were represented by proxy. A few priests and bishops from Rome were present, to represent the conclusion of the West that Jesus had dual natures. Constantine was present for many of the sessions, participating in the discussions; he was present at the closing session on 16 September 681, at which 151 bishops were present.

A letter from Pope Agatho was read, stating that Jesus was both human and divine; this had been commonly accepted for centuries. The majority accepted this. There were champions for Monothelitism, however. One of them, Patriarch Macarius of Antioch, claimed that Monothelitism had been proposed by ecumenical councils in the past and by statements from popes, but he was challenged to present that evidence. A letter from Pope Honorius to an earlier patriarch of Constantinople, Sergius I, seemed to express support for Monothelitism. The papal legates had no problem declaring that Honorius was wrong and needed to be condemned in the light of the current stance on Monothelitism.

During the months of debate, one proponent of Monothelitism attempted to prove the rightness of it (and of his faith in it) by declaring that he could in fact bring the dead back to life, proving that God was on his side in the debate. A corpse was found, and the priest whispered prayers into its ears, but the result one would expect took place. The corpse remained dead.

Macarius was deposed by the council; he and four others who would not relent on their belief were sent to Rome for "further instruction." Tomorrow, I'll tell you about the man who took on the responsibility of bringing Macarius back "into the fold" so to speak.

Byzantine Economy

Constantine IV had other problems besides potential usurpers and Umayyads. Because his father, Constans II, had moved the administrative seat from Constantinople to Sicily, a large part of the treasury was in the middle of the Mediterranean, not in Constantinople, where Constantine was still living. When Mizizios tried to take control of the empire in Sicily, he had possession of a large part of the empire's funding.

Not only that, but the Arab raids mentioned yesterday also meant the loss to Constantinople of some important mines that were the source of precious metals like gold and silver. This created an economic crisis which needed addressing. Constantine re-issued a copper coin that had been created by Justinian, whose reign just over a century earlier (527 - 565) was looked on by many as a golden age. Constantine took further steps to re-organize the economy to the way it was in Justinian's time. Shortly after, Constantine bore a son whom he named Justinian II, further creating the symbolism of a return to a more glorious period in Byzantine history.

Counter-attacks in Syria and Egypt that reversed some of the progress of the Arab invasions further enhance the new emperor's reputation. The death of Umayyad Caliph Muawiyah I in 680, the architect of the Arab attempt to conquer Constantinople and its territories not long before, put an end to fears of Arabs for a long time.

He then took on a challenge his father had avoided: dealing with the Monothelitism controversy. Appealed to by the patriarchs and priests, he claimed it was not his decision, but that the church must rule on whether Jesus had one nature/energy/will or two. He wrote to Pope Donus in Rome to suggest an ecumenical council to decide the matter. By the time the letter reached Rome, Donus had died, but Pope Agatho agreed to the need and ordered synods throughout the West to confirm the West's belief in the matter. This culminated in a synod in Rome, after which Agatho sent emissaries to Constantinople.

Constantine called for the Third Council of Constantinople, which was also the Sixth Ecumenical Council (depicted above in the 12th century chronicle by Constantine Manasses). The emissaries from the pope met with the Patriarch of Constantinople and all the Byzantine bishops, and the matter was settled.

Constantine had two brothers, Heraclius and Tiberius. They had also been crowned co-emperors by their father, but Constantine decided that, if he were to die, he would rather be succeeded by his son. He had both brothers mutilated by slitting their noses. This physical deformity made them ineligible to rule. When he died on 10 July 685, Justinian II succeeded him at the age of 16.

But let's not summarize the Sixth Ecumenical Council in just a sentence or two. There's a little more to the story, including an attempt to bring someone back from the dead. Come back next time and I'll tell you.

Saint Wilfrid, Part Two

Wilfrid's knowledge of Roman Christianity and his opposition to Celtic Christianity made him the ideal candidate to attend the Synod of Whitby in 664 to determine which form should take precedence in England, especially regarding the date on which Easter is celebrated each year.

His arguments won, and Ahlfrith, son of King Oswiu of Bernicia, appointed Wilfrid Bishop of Northumbria. Wilfrid felt that there were no validly consecrated bishops in England who could consecrate him, so he traveled to Gaul—where earlier he had spent several formative years—to be made bishop. He was consecrated by Bishop Agilbert of Paris, who had attended Whitby. (Agilbert did not speak the local language, and so Wilfrid was his interpreter.) While he was out of England, his patron Ahlfrith led a revolt against Oswiu. When Bishop Wilfrid returned to Northumbria, he found his appointment there had been canceled and another man put in his place, so he went to stay at the monastery at Ripon.

In 668, Theodore of Tarsus became Archbishop of Canterbury. Theodore re-appointed Wilfrid as bishop of Northumbria. Wilfrid spent the next nine years building churches and founding monasteries. Wilfrid also wanted to make changes to the liturgy nd establish some religious reforms, but so did Theodore of Tarsus, and the two did not always agree. When Wilfrid had a dispute with Ecgfrith, King of Northumbria (another son of Oswiu), the archbishop took the opportunity to step in, establish his reforms over Wilfrid's, and also break up the large diocese into smaller divisions that would be easier to administer with three new bishops. Ecgfrith expelled Wilfrid, who traveled to Rome to get the pope's support. Pope Agatho (577 – 10 January 681) determined that the division of the large diocese was acceptable, but Wilfrid should be allowed to name the new bishops. Ecgfrith ignored the pope's wishes and imprisoned Wilfrid when he returned to Northumbria, because Wilfrid convinced Ecgfrith's wife, Æthelthryth, that she should practice saintly celibacy.

Later, exiled from Northumbria, Wilfrid went to the Kingdom of Sussex where he converted them to Christianity. Theodore, pleased, made peace with Wilfrid and persuaded the new king of Northumbria, Aldfrith (also a son of Oswiu), to take Wilfrid back. This only lasted until 691, when Aldfrith found reason to expel Wilfrid again. Aldfrith, like his brother, did not support Bishop Wilfrid's pope-granted right to name bishops. Moreover, Aldfrith still embraced Celtic Christianity. Wilfrid was banished and went to Mercia.

He enjoyed a good relationship with King Æthelred of Mercia, who made him bishop of the Middle Angles. A papal-initiated council was held in South Yorkshire in 702 to determine Wilfrid's rights and authority. The assembled English prelates decided that Wilfrid should have all his titles and possessions (parishes) confiscated. Wilfrid appealed to the pope, and regained the northern monasteries of Ripon and Hexham (the Wilfrid Chapel at Hexham Abbey is shown above). He died in 709/710. Although he created controversy for many, including his fellow religious, he was revered as a saint.

It is past time to give Theodore of Tarsus some attention, the Greek who fled Persia as a child and wound up in the top position of the English Church. See you tomorrow.