Pope Benedict II

To continue yesterday's post and talk about "re-orienting" wayward bishops with "wrong" ideas, we have to first look at there Bishop of Rome, Benedict. By Bishop of Rome (elected by the clergy) I mean he was the pope, of course.

He was born Benedict, son of John. (This was before it was common for popes to take regnal names. The first pope to do so was Mercurius, who was elected pope in 533 and felt it was improper for a Christian pope to be named for a Roman god, so he took the name John II. But many popes had names that they considered already suitable.) Benedict had been involved in the courts of Popes Agatho and Leo II, and was known for his knowledge of Scriptures from an early age.

His confirmation as pope at the time had to come from the emperor, and the emperor at the time for the Roman Empire (what there was of it) was Constantine IV. It took a year for the request to go to Constantinople and for the reply to come back to Rome. He tried to persuade Constantine that they could save time by allowing the Exarch in Ravenna (the Byzantine emperor's local administrator) to ratify papal elections. Constantine was interested in the idea, but request for papal confirmations continued to go to Constantinople.

One of Benedict's acts that connects to recent posts here was his confirmation of Pope Agatho's decree that Wilfrid should be returned to the See of York as archbishop.

Then, after the Sixth Ecumenical Council to determine once and for all the official stand on Monothelitism, bishops who adhered to Monothelitism were sent to Rome for re-education. Benedict did not want to simply condemn Macarius, who had been the Patriarch of Antioch: he wanted to convince him that Monothelitism was wrong and Macarius should relent. According to the notes of the Second Council of Nicaea, which addressed how to manage heretical bishops, Benedict spent 30 days trying to persuade Macarius.

A motive for not simply leaving Macarius deposed has been suggested: his successor at Antioch had just died, and Benedict might have wanted to reinstate Macarius. Macarius was not about to change his stance. He had told the emperor in the Sixth Ecumenical Council that he would rather be cut to pieces and thrown in the sea than admit the doctrine of two wills in Jesus.

So far as we know, Benedict's attempts failed. Macarius drops out of the historical record. As for Benedict, he was pope from 26 June 684 to 8 May 685.

The Second Council of Nicaea was also called the Seventh General Council; it was the last of seven general councils between both the Western Roman and Eastern Byzantine Churches. We'll look at its subjects tomorrow.

Archbishop Theodore

Theodore of Tarsus likely never thought that a Greek who in his youth had to flee Persian and Muslim invasions would one day wind up Archbishop of Canterbury, but here he was, on his way to England after being consecrated by Pope Vitalian on the recommendation of a friend, Adrian of Canterbury.

The position had been vacant for at least four years after the death of Deusdedit and the unexpected death of his appointed successor, Wighard. There was much work to be done upon his arrival on 27 May 669. Many sees had been vacant for years, with no archbishop to appoint new bishops. The Synod of Whitby in 664 had decided to choose certain Roman Christian practices (like the calculation of the date of Easter) over Celtic Christian practices, but these had not been widely adopted.

His first step was to fill the vacant sees with new bishops. Once these positions were filled, he called the Synod of Hertford in 673. This was intended to promote reforms concerning the date of Easter, episcopal authority, prohibitions on consanguinity in marriage, the role of itinerant monks, and others. He also declared that there should be an annual synod, although there are no records that they rook place until many years later.

He also dealt with the enormous diocese of Northumbria, breaking it up into smaller territories that each needed their own bishop. This of course raised the ire of Wilfrid, whom Theodore ultimately saw fit to depose and expel in 678.

Theodore and Adrian also established a school at Canterbury that taught Greek as well as Latin. Some of their teachings can be found in the Leiden Glossary. According to Bede,

They attracted a large number of students, into whose minds they poured the waters of wholesome knowledge day by day. In addition to instructing them in the Holy Scriptures, they also taught their pupils poetry, astronomy, and the calculation of the church calendar ... Never had there been such happy times as these since the English settled Britain.

A golden age of Anglo-Saxon scholarship came out of this school, as did Benedictine abbots to spread their knowledge around the island.

Theodore held the position of archbishop for 22 years, dying in 690 at the age of 88. He was buried at St. Peter's Church, now called St. Augustine's Abbey. He is venerated as a saint with a feast day on 19 September.

But what of Adrian of Canterbury, the abbot who refused the archbishopric twice and suggested to the pope that it go to another? Let's learn more about him tomorrow.

Saint Wilfrid, Part Two

Wilfrid's knowledge of Roman Christianity and his opposition to Celtic Christianity made him the ideal candidate to attend the Synod of Whitby in 664 to determine which form should take precedence in England, especially regarding the date on which Easter is celebrated each year.

His arguments won, and Ahlfrith, son of King Oswiu of Bernicia, appointed Wilfrid Bishop of Northumbria. Wilfrid felt that there were no validly consecrated bishops in England who could consecrate him, so he traveled to Gaul—where earlier he had spent several formative years—to be made bishop. He was consecrated by Bishop Agilbert of Paris, who had attended Whitby. (Agilbert did not speak the local language, and so Wilfrid was his interpreter.) While he was out of England, his patron Ahlfrith led a revolt against Oswiu. When Bishop Wilfrid returned to Northumbria, he found his appointment there had been canceled and another man put in his place, so he went to stay at the monastery at Ripon.

In 668, Theodore of Tarsus became Archbishop of Canterbury. Theodore re-appointed Wilfrid as bishop of Northumbria. Wilfrid spent the next nine years building churches and founding monasteries. Wilfrid also wanted to make changes to the liturgy nd establish some religious reforms, but so did Theodore of Tarsus, and the two did not always agree. When Wilfrid had a dispute with Ecgfrith, King of Northumbria (another son of Oswiu), the archbishop took the opportunity to step in, establish his reforms over Wilfrid's, and also break up the large diocese into smaller divisions that would be easier to administer with three new bishops. Ecgfrith expelled Wilfrid, who traveled to Rome to get the pope's support. Pope Agatho (577 – 10 January 681) determined that the division of the large diocese was acceptable, but Wilfrid should be allowed to name the new bishops. Ecgfrith ignored the pope's wishes and imprisoned Wilfrid when he returned to Northumbria, because Wilfrid convinced Ecgfrith's wife, Æthelthryth, that she should practice saintly celibacy.

Later, exiled from Northumbria, Wilfrid went to the Kingdom of Sussex where he converted them to Christianity. Theodore, pleased, made peace with Wilfrid and persuaded the new king of Northumbria, Aldfrith (also a son of Oswiu), to take Wilfrid back. This only lasted until 691, when Aldfrith found reason to expel Wilfrid again. Aldfrith, like his brother, did not support Bishop Wilfrid's pope-granted right to name bishops. Moreover, Aldfrith still embraced Celtic Christianity. Wilfrid was banished and went to Mercia.

He enjoyed a good relationship with King Æthelred of Mercia, who made him bishop of the Middle Angles. A papal-initiated council was held in South Yorkshire in 702 to determine Wilfrid's rights and authority. The assembled English prelates decided that Wilfrid should have all his titles and possessions (parishes) confiscated. Wilfrid appealed to the pope, and regained the northern monasteries of Ripon and Hexham (the Wilfrid Chapel at Hexham Abbey is shown above). He died in 709/710. Although he created controversy for many, including his fellow religious, he was revered as a saint.

It is past time to give Theodore of Tarsus some attention, the Greek who fled Persia as a child and wound up in the top position of the English Church. See you tomorrow.

Saint Wilfrid, Part One

Bede's Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum ("History of the Church of the English People") lists Wilfrid as one of the men who contributed to the development of the English Church. Bede's writing, and a biography written shortly after Wilfrid's death by a priest at Ripon called Stephen, tell us a lot about his life (although of course some may be more legend than fact).

Wilfrid (c.633/4 - 709/10) was a Northumbrian noble who chose the religious life as a teenager, leaving his home after a falling out with his stepmother. He found a patroness in Queen Eanflæd, wife of King Oswiu of Bernicia and Northumbria. She sent him to Lindisfarne to study. After a few years he went to Canterbury (where he met the missionary Benedict Biscop), then to Francia (kingdom of the Franks, during the time of Clovis II), and to Rome.

Benedict Biscop was with him on the trip to Rome (between 653 and 658). Some say this is the first pilgrimage to Rome made by English natives. The two men parted company when Wilfrid stayed in Lyon, where the archbishop Annemund wanted Wilfrid to marry his niece and become governor of a Frankish province (Wilfrid was not yet ordained). Wilfrid chose to resume his pilgrimage. In Rome he learned the Roman way to calculate the date of Easter. He met the pope, and then returned to Lyon, where he stayed for three years. When his acquaintance Annemund was murdered (slandered as a traitor because he did not attend a royal event), Wilfrid returned to England, arriving by 660.

While on the continent, he learned Frankish ecclesiastical practices. This created a preference in him when later he was made a bishop. He believed there were no appropriately consecrated bishops in England who could consecrate him, so he went to Gaul for the ceremony.

King Oswiu's son Aldfrith took an interest in Wilfrid, and gave Wilfrid a new monastery at Ripon founded by monks from Melrose Abbey. They followed Irish monastic customs, not Roman, and Wilfrid ejected their abbot for refusing to change. Another monk he expelled for refusing to change was Cuthbert. Wilfrid introduced and enforced the Rule of St. Benedict.

This insistence on Roman Christianity made him the ideal candidate to speak on its behalf at the Synod of Whitby. I'll go into that and the rest of his life tomorrow.

The "Oldest" Benedictines

If, of the members of the Benedictine Confederation, the Camaldolese Congregation was founded in 980, and the Vallombrosians in 1036, how can the English Congregation, founded in 1216, claim to be the oldest member of the Confederation?

Pope Honorius III took a special interest in the monastic orders. He approved the Dominicans in 1216, the Franciscans in 1223, and the Carmelites in 1226. It was his idea that the various abbeys and priories with Benedictine monastic communities in England be united. The first General Chapter of this united congregation was held in Oxford in 1218. The origins of Benedictines in England go back much further than the 13th century, however, thanks principally to three individuals.

Augustine of Canterbury's arrival in England at the tail end of the 6th century CE was the start of the first great wave of Christianizing on that island. He was created the first Archbishop of Canterbury and had an enormous impact on bringing Christianity to several kingdoms, along with founding monasteries.

Immediately following Augustine was Wilfrid (c.633 - 709/710), a Northumbrian noble who entered the religious life as a teenager and became the first abbot of a monastery in Ripon dedicated to St. Peter. He later became bishop of York (York did not become an archbishopric until 735 with Paulinus). Wilfrid was the spokesman for Roman Christianity (as opposed to Celtic Christianity) at the Synod of Whitby in 664. His arguments on how the date of Easter should be calculated each year won over the Celtic St. Cuthbert.

The third highly influential figure in the early origins of English Christianity and monasticism was Benedict Biscop (c. 628 – 690). He founded the monastery at Jarrow, where among other influences he was the teacher of Bede. Benedict's given name was "Biscop Baducing"; he was not just a noble, he even served under King Oswiu of Bernicia before traveling to Rome and returning to England with enthusiasm for supporting the Church. On a second trip to Rome, Benedict met Wilfrid. Returning from this second trip, he stopped at an island off the coast of Provence, where a monastery was using the Rule of St. Benedict. He spent two years there, taking vows, learning the Rule, and adopting the name "Benedict." After a third trip to Rome, Pope Vitalian asked him to go back to England with Theodore of Tarsus. After doing so, Theodore appointed Benedict abbot at Canterbury.

The English Congregation now has about 20 houses (Ealing in London is shown above), with a few hundred monks and nuns spread across them.

We have a lot of info about Wilfrid based on those who knew him, especially Bede and a monk who wrote a biography of Wilfrid shortly after his death. I'd like to share some of his life story over the next two days.

The Venerable Bede

Start typing the word "venerable" into a search engine on the Internet and one of the options offered will be "venerable Bede." He was a monk, and the author of Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum ("Ecclesiastical History of the English People"). This work was considered so important that it has survived in countless copies and translations.

Bede (Beda, Bæda) was born about 672-3 o lands belonging to the monasteries of Monkwearmouth and Jarrow in Northumbria (now Wearside and Tyneside). Because the name Beda appears on a list of kings of Lindsey in Northumbria, and because of Bede's obvious connections to notable men, we think he came from a well-to-do family, possibly royal.

He was sent to the monastery at Monkwearmouth at the age of seven as a puer oblatus ("a boy oblate" or "boy dedicated to God's service"). At the time, the abbot was Benedict Biscop. Some years later he went to Jarrow, which was dedicated on 23 April 635. A plague in 686 left only two survivors at Jarrow who knew the holy services, Abbot Ceolfrith and a young boy. Bede would have been about 14 and was likely that boy.

Bede was ordained a deacon earlier than the typical age of 25, indicating exceptional ability and respect earned. He became a priest at the age of 30. In started writing about 701, with De Arte Metrica ("On Metrical Art" [meaning poetry]) and De Schematibus et Tropis ("On Figures and Tropes"). Once started, he did not stop writing, producing works and translations to explain history, the church, church services and religious trappings, the Bible, histories of saints, histories of abbots of Jarrow, and far more.

One of his works created a stir: in De Temporibus ("On the Times," meaning the ages of the world), he calculated that Christ was born 3,952 years after Creation. The generally accepted feeling was Isidore of Seville's opinion that the length of time was more than 5,000 years. Some monks complained to Bishop Wilfrid of Hexham (mentioned here). Wilfrid did not share their concern about Bede, but a monk who was present relayed the event to Bede, who wrote back explaining his calculations and asked the monk to share his thinking with Wilfrid. Regarding dates: the use of Anno Domini ("Year of the Lord") to count years since the birth of Christ was introduced by Bede. Bede also writes extensively on the controversy over the proper dating of Easter Sunday.

We know from a letter written by a disciple of his, Cuthbert (not St. Cuthbert) that he began to feel ill, his breathing became labored, his feet began to swell. He asked for a box of his things to be brought to him, and gave away his possessions, described as "some pepper, and napkins, and some incense." He died 26 May 735, his body being found on the floor of his cell that morning.

In 1899, Pope Leo XIII named him a "Doctor of the Church," the only native Englishman to be given that title.

Although Bede's literary output and life have countless points from which I could find a link to tomorrow's blog post, I wanted to talk about the pracrive=ce of handing a seven-year-old over to be raised by strangers in a monastery. Next time.

Oswiu of Bernicia

King Oswiu (also Oswy or Oswig), who was a friend of Benedict Biscop, ruled Bernicia, a small section of Northumberland between what is now Edinburgh and Newcastle upon Tyne.

According to Bede's writings, Oswiu would have been born about 612. Unfortunately for him, his father, King Æthelfrith of Bernicia, was killed in battle against the King of the East Angles, and Oswiu and his siblings and their supporters had to flee to exile. They were not able to return to power until 633. Oswiu became king when he succeeded his brother Oswald, who died in battle in 642.

In 655, a military victory temporarily made Oswiu ruler over much of Britain. This position didn't last very long, but Oswiu still remained significant in the larger affairs of Britain. He was especially interested in and supportive of the church. Oswiu had been crucial to the foundation of Melrose Abbey. He had allowed his daughter to become a nun. His interest in relics was supported by Pope Vitalian sending him iron filings from the chains that had been used to imprison St. Peter.

In 664, the Synod of Whitby was held to make choices about how Christianity would be practiced, and Oswiu was asked to choose. He chose the version of Christianity that was being practiced by Rome over the Celtic version. This also meant calculating the date of Easter differently.

This created some awkwardness; Oswiu's son had been raised following Irish-Northumbrian practices but switched to Roman practices at the urging of St. Wilfrid (who was mentioned in a footnote here for his influence on Whitby). Oswiu chose to side with his son and Rome, but not everyone found it so easy to switch. Bede reported for 665 "that Easter was kept twice in one year, so that when the King had ended Lent and was keeping Easter, the Queen and her attendants were still fasting and keeping Palm Sunday."

The Archbishop of Canterbury, Theodore of Tarsus, traveled north to visit Oswiu in 669 and made such an impression that Oswiu was going to make a pilgrimage to Rome. He never made it, dying on 15 February 670. He was buried at Whitby, where his daughter the nun then resided.

You CAN take it with you

12th c. image of St. Cuthbert

St. Cuthbert (c.634-687), briefly mentioned here, never stayed in one place for very long—not even after he died. He grew up near Melrose Abbey, became a monk and was made master of guests in a monastery at Ripon, then returned to Melrose when the monastery was given to someone else.* After a few years he was made prior at Lindisfarne. Before his death he resigned and retired to one of the Farne Islands off the northeast coast of Northumbria. Urged to become Bishop of Lindisfarne, he left the Islands for a few years, but returned when he felt his death was approaching. His body was brought back to the mainland so that he could be interred at Lindisfarne Priory.

In 875, with the threat of Danish Invasion, the monks fled Lindisfarne, taking Cuthbert's remains. The monks and Cuthbert's body wandered for seven years looking for a home. In 883 they were offered a place called Chester-le-Street near Durham, where Cuthbert was re-interred.

In the late 900s, the threat of Danish invasion caused monks to remove the Saint's bones again, carrying them to Ripon over 300 years after he had lived there—but only for a few months. The monks brought the bones back toward Chester-le-Street, but stopped in Durham after having dreams that the saint wished to be interred there. A stone church was built to house the relics. Then came William the Conqueror, campaigning to make sure the north of England feared him, so in 1069 the monks fled with the bones back to Lindisfarne, but shortly after returned to Durham.

William's habit of building massive churches to impress the locals (and perhaps to appease God for William's sins) meant that, by 1104, the bones of Cuthbert could return to Durham to a cathedral that had been built on the site of his original stone church. We are told that it was decided at this time to open the casket they had carted around for so many generations; they discovered two remarkable things. One was that Cuthbert's body had remained uncorrupted (a sign of sanctity). The second thing was a book, now called The Stonyhurst Gospel or St. Cuthbert's Gospel.

It's a tiny bound book, only 5.4x3.6 inches, and was probably not Cuthbert's personal Gospel. It is likely that it was made after his death, and placed with him out of piety at some point during his post-death wandering. It, like Cuthbert, wandered for hundreds of years after its finding, ultimately passing among collectors until it came to the Jesuit Stonyhurst College. The British Library has called it "the earliest surviving intact European book," and purchased it in April 2012 for £9,000,000. They plan to display it alternately in London and Durham.

*That someone was later St. Wilfrid; among other things, Wilfrid became celebrated for his speech at the Synod of Whitby on why Easter should be calculated using the Roman method, not the Irish method. Cuthbert was raised in the Irish tradition, but accepted the Roman method when it became the rule.