The End of Güyük

Güyük Khan was making plans to conquer Europe. He had been part of the invasion of Eastern and Central Europe, and wished to continue. The Mongol Empire had already extended to Russia and Ukraine and Hungary, so Christian Western Europe saw the danger (even though Güyük himself was supposedly Christian).

He started with a warning: a letter to the pope (Innocent IV), who had requested that the Mongol Empire stop expanding westward. Claiming that Catholics had sent envoys during the time of Genghis Khan and Ögedei Khan (Güyük's grandfather and father, respectively) that had been killed, he decided on a non-compromising reply.

"You must say with a sincere heart: 'We will be your subjects; we will give you our strength'. You must in person come with your kings, all together, without exception, to render us service and pay us homage. Only then will we acknowledge your submission. And if you do not follow the order of God, and go against our orders, we will know you as our enemy."

There is no reason to believe that Güyük wouldn't keep his armies moving until he reached the Atlantic.

He had to deal with some internal issues first, however. His mother, Töregene, was one. She had been regent, and had been instrumental in getting her son elected Grand Khan, but despite her retirement to China, he wanted her potential influence neutralized. She had, during her regency, put several of her favorites in positions of authority. One of her favorites was Fatima.

Güyük's brother, Koden, accused Fatima of damaging his health through witchcraft. When Koden died some months later, Güyük insisted that Töregene turn Fatima over to him. Töregene refused. Güyük's men seized Fatima, sewed up all her orifices, and threw her in the river. Töregene died 18 months later of no apparent cause.

In 1248, Güyük summoned Batu Khan to meet him at the capital.  He had once insulted Batu, and the two had their differences, but Batu treated Güyük with the loyalty the Grand Khan deserved. Batu began the journey, but he came with an army. Güyük left the capital and moved westward to meet with Batu, also with an army. Sorghaghtani Beki, Güyük's aunt, sent Batu a warning that he should not trust Güyük.

We'll never know what would have happened, since Güyük died en route. He had been known to be a heavy drinker with poor health. William of Rubruck claimed he was killed in a brawl by Shiban, a younger brother of Batu. The widow, Oghul Qaimish, became regent while Batu and Sorghaghtani arranged to make one of Sorghaghtani's sons, Möngke, the next Grand Khan.

Güyük's death stalled the potential conquest of Europe by the Mongols. Instead, the Mongol Empire looked eastward to continue to make inroads into China. That culminated in another of Sorghaghtani's sons becoming emperor of China. That was Kublai Khan, and we'll talk about him more tomorrow.

They Wanted a Boy

When Güyük Khan died, Batu Khan started making decisions toward the election of the next Grand Khan. He didn't want the position himself, but he did want to take it away from the Ögedei family (Ögedei was Güyük's father and one of the sons of Genghis Khan). It was customary for Mongol widows to manage their husband's estates, and sometimes even re-marry back into the family. Batu had Güyük's widow become regent over his territories.

Her name was Oghul Qaimish, which means "We were searching for a boy," suggesting that her parents wanted a son rather than a daughter. She came from the Merkit tribe that was conquered by Genghis Khan. Male members of the ruling family were likely killed. She was given as a "secondary bride" to Güyük, a grandson of Genghis.

Güyük's mother, Töregene, was also a Merkit, and might have promoted the marriage because of their shared heritage. Otherwise, Oghul brought no political advantage to Güyük.

She was probably born in the early 1200s, and was therefore in her 40s when she became a widow; her regency lasted from 1248 to 1251.

Batu and Sorghaghtani Beki, widow of Genghis' youngest son, Tolui, were allied in making Oghul regent. This generous move on their part of Batu might have had an ulterior motive outside of following Mongol custom. Oghul had not played any particular role in the management of Güyük's administration previously. With no political experience, her regency was ineffective. She also had difficulty with her two sons who acted as "sub-rulers"; the three made pronouncements that often contradicted each other, creating chaos in their lands. Oghul apparently spent a lot of her time consulting shamans for advice.

Also Sorghaghtani Beki had four sons whom she wished to see advance, and it was her eldest, Möngke, who was put forward by her and Batu as the next Grand Khan. If Oghul thought she could manage to get one of her sons to succeed Güyük, she did not have the political skill it would take to convince the other descendants of Genghis to go along.

When Batu called a kurultai, the council that would decide, many did not attend because he held it outside primary Mongol territory. Oghul sent a representative, Bala, who tried to convince the group that Ögedei's favorite grandson Shiremun should be chosen. This failed, and Möngke was chosen (although there was opposition).

Möngke was officially recognized on 1 July 1251, and Shiremun and Naqu (one of Oghul's sons) mounted a coup. It failed, Oghul was then blamed, arrested, and imprisoned by Sorghaghtani, who had her stripped and tortured before being sentenced to execution for the crime of witchcraft. Execution was done by wrapping her in felt and casting her into the river.

It occurs to me that I don't have a definitive entry in the blog for Güyük himself. Let me tell you about him more directly next time.

The End of Batu Khan

After the death of Güyük Khan, Batu Khan saw an opportunity to take the overlordship away from the Ögedei clan and bring it to his own lineage. He had made great success in expanding the borders of the Mongol Empire westward, after all.

First, he allowed Güyük's wife, Oghul Qaimish, to act as regent while a decision was made, then he called a kurultai, the council of important members of families, to take place in 1250 in territory under his control. Those who should be there, Ögedei's clan and the Chagatai clan (the children of Genghis Khan), refused to leave primary Mongol territory to attend.

Batu did not actually want to be the Grand Khan himself, and rejected it when the kurultai offered it. Instead, he proposed his cousin Möngke, son of Genghis' son Tolui. The Tolui-descended families were in favor, but since not all descendants of Genghis were present, the election was not considered legitimate by many. So Batu sent Möngke, with an escort that included Batu's brothers and son, to meet with the other families. The other families still refused to take part in a kurultai for the purpose of ratifying Möngke.

Möngke was presented to the people at large, who accepted him, and Batu then punished the clans of Ögedei and Chagatai. Buri, a grandson of Chagatai, was outright executed as part of this punishment.

Batu was greatly respected as a kingmaker as well as a loyal subject, allowing Möngke's officers to operate in Batu's territory. Batu and Möngke stayed friendly with each other and, together, saw the Mongol Empire stretch from Afghanistan to Turkey (the illustration is a bust of Batu from Turkey).

Batu did in 1255, leaving his properties to his son Sartaq.

Since recently we have looked at Mongol women and the influence they have, I want to take a look at Oghul Qaimish, Güyük's widow. Since Batu intended to take control of the Empire away from Güyük's family, it is interesting that he put Güyük's widow in charge. Let's take a closer look at this powerful woman tomorrow.

Invading Europe

Batu Khan's military successes inspired Ögedei Khan to have him invade Europe. He had already conquered the Crimean Peninsula.

Spies were sent into Poland, Hungary, and Austria for reconnaissance. Having planned their approach, three separate armies invaded Central Europe: into Hungary, Transylvania, and Poland. The column into Poland defeated Henry II the Pious.

The second and third columns crossed the Carpathians and followed the Danube, combining with the Poland column and defeating the Hungarian army under King Béla IV of Hungary on 11 April 1241. They killed half the Hungarian population, then proceeded to German territory. Béla had sent to Pope Innocent IV for a Crusade against the Mongols, but the pope was focused on the Holy Land. (The illustration is from a 14th century history, the Chronicon Pictum, or "Illustrated Chronicle," and shows Béla fleeing.)

Austria, Dalmatia, and Moravia were occupied. While this was going on, a group led by Ögedei's son Güyük was conquering Transylvania.

Further advances in Germany were paused when the Great Khan died in 1241. Batu's thirst to continue was quenched by a reminder of Mongol law, that the chief descendants of Genghis had to return to Mongolia to elect his replacement.

Batu took his time returning, and the election was delayed for several years until Güyük was elected in 1246. Batu became the viceroy over the western empire. Batu returned to the western front and summoned the Grand prince of Vladimir, Yaroslav II. Batu put him in charge of all other Russian princes.

Around this time Batu came into contact with Europeans and their culture. Giovanni of Plano Carpini was sent by Pope Innocent IV to take a letter to Ögedei, protesting the Mongol invasion. Giovanni met with Batu, who gave him permission to continue to the court of the Great Khan. Giovanni described Batu as "kind enough to his own people, but he is greatly feared by them. He is, however, most cruel in fight; he is very shrewd and extremely crafty in warfare, for he has been waging war for a long time."

William of Rubruck also encountered Batu, describing him physically as about the same height as John de Beaumont (which tells those who never met John de Beaumont nothing useful, but other sources put him at 5'7"), and that his face was covered with red spots.

Others whose paths crossed with Batu are Queen Rusudan, who sent her son David to Batu for recognition. Sorghaghtani Beki sent Batu a warning to beware of a summons from Güyük. Before Batu reached Güyük, Güyük died mysteriously; Rubruck wrote it was one of Batu's brothers who did the deed.

The position of Great Khan was again available. What would Batu do about it? Come back tomorrow to find out.

Batu Khan

History tells stories of Genghis Khan and his Mongol hordes and Kublai Khan meeting Marco Polo, but Batu Khan is a name that is less-known but quite a large part of Mongol history—and European, when it comes to it.

Batu founded the Golden Horde, a large territory on the outskirts of the Mongol Empire. His father, Jochi, was possibly a son of Genghis Khan; based on his relations with known family of Genghis, this could well have been the case. In fact, Genghis' will left 4,000 Mongol soldiers to Jochi's family. Upon Jochi's death, the remaining children agreed that Batu should succeed him.

Genghis' son and successor, Ögedei, got along with Batu, who would have been Ögedei's nephew. Together they made conquests of other peoples, including forays into China. Ögedei gave lands in northern China to Batu after successful campaigns.

By 1235, Batu had conquered the Crimean Peninsula, and Ögedei wanted Batu to continue westward and conquer Europe. Batu and several relatives (including Güyük, Möngke, and others) with an army of perhaps 130,000 crossed the Volga River and invaded Bulgaria in 1236. A year of fighting led to success.

Batu then sent men west to Vladimir-Suzdai (east of Moscow) demanding allegiance, which was refused. Batu invaded and in less than a week destroyed the city of Ryazan (it recovered; now it has a population of over a half million). The Horde burned Moscow, and made short work of any who dared oppose them. Batu divided the army and sent the subdivisions all over Kievan Rus, subduing and destroying cities. Only Smolensk and Novgorod survived, the one because it surrendered and the latter because it was too distant (and separated by marshlands) to bother with.

Trouble arose when Batu was ridiculed by his cousins, annoyed that he had claimed a large and fertile territory. They mocked him and walked out of a banquet. Batu complained to his uncle, who recalled the two chief offenders, Buri and Ögedei's son Güyük. Buri was sent home, but Güyük was reprimanded by his father and sent back to the Russian steppe.

Then they planned the invasion of Europe. We'll pick up that story tomorrow.

Mongol Women and Influence

Sorghaghtani Beki stood firm after the death of her husband: she would not re-marry into the family (as was often Mongol custom), even at the request of the current Khan, because her sons needed her to focus on them (and they would each grow up to be Khan themselves as grandsons of Genghis Khan).

Sorghaghtani was respected enough that she even shamed the Khan, Ögedei (her brother-in-law), to hand over more territory that had been her husband's. Ögedei did, however, absorb some of her territory, and also conscripted much of the military attached to those lands.

Again underscoring the power held by women, upon Ögedei's death in 1241 his widow was regent for the Mongol Empire for the next five years until she got their son Güyük elected khan over other claimants.

Güyük had not been raised to respect women sufficiently, however, and he targeted several women who were holding power that he wanted. The first was his own mother, Töregene Khatun (Khatun = queen), who had worked to get him elected; next was Sorghaghtani. Genghis Khan's third daughter, Alakhai Bekhi, who was regent for areas in China, was another target. Ebuskun, the wife of a grandson of Genghis, had been regent after her husband's death (and son's minority) over the Chagatai Khanate, an enormous region.

During Güyük's attempts to undermine these women, Sorghaghtani allied herself with Batu Khan, Güyük's cousin, ruler of the Golden Horde. In 1248, Güyük started a military campaign to the Middle East, which put him in Batu's direction; it is possible he intended to deal with Batu's opposition. Güyük died suddenly and with no particular cause. (Some insinuate that Sorghaghtani brought it about; she certainly had motive and ability).

Whatever Sorghaghtani's role in Güyük's fate, it was an opportunity for her to propose her eldest son, Möngke, as khan. He had fought alongside Batu, who organized a kurultai (Mongol political and military council) that elected Möngke to be Khan in the late 1240s.

Sorghaghtani became ill and died in the late winter in 1252, and had a Christian burial. She did not live to see three other sons become khans, nor to see her son Kublai Khan capture her youngest, Ariq Böke, in conflict and imprison him until his death. Perhaps if she were alive a little longer she might have counseled them and avoided the hostility.

What about Batu Khan? He was powerful enough that Sorghaghtani turned to him for help, but was okay with letting someone else become Great Khan. He was far more influential in history than Möngke—and better known to Europe—and we'll see how tomorrow.

John of Plano Carpini

Marco Polo is known for traveling to the Far East from Europe and observing things unknown to Europeans, but there were many travelers from Western Europe who went into unfamiliar lands for various reasons. One of these reasons was to bring Christianity to the inhabitants. The Franciscan John of Plano Carpini was one of those.

Carpini (c.1185 - 1 August 1252) was from central Italy. He was a companion of St. Francis of Assissi. In 1245, he was sent by Pope Innocent IV to the east with a letter for Ögedei Khan, who had defeated European forces four years earlier at the Battle of Legnica and almost took over all of Eastern Europe. The pope's intention was to protest the Mongol intrusion into Christendom, and to bring Christianity to the East. Incidentally, the mission could learn more about the enemy's intentions and strength.

Carpini had been at that time the Franciscan provincial in Germany. He set out with the pope's letter on Easter Day 1245 (16 April), with a fellow Franciscan, Stephen of Bohemia. They passed through Kyiv, where Stephen became ill and was left behind. They passed the rivers Dnieper, Don, and Volga; those names were first recorded by Carpini.

At the Volga they came to the camp of Batu Khan, a grandson of Genghis Khan, where they were made to walk between two fires (similar—but not as dangerous—as the Ordeal of Fire endured by Peter Bartholomew) to remove any impure thoughts or poisons before they were bought before Batu. Batu sent them on to the court in Mongolia. This second part of the journey set off on Easter Day 1246 (8 April).

This was arduous, and they had suffered through Lent, melting snow for water and eating millet with salt for their sustenance. Their journey of 3000 miles took 106 days. Before they arrived at their destination, Ögedei died, and the envoys were in time to witness the instatement of the new Supreme Khan, Güyük Khan. You can see his response to the pope's letter here.

Güyük kept Carpini and his party until November, and then sent them on their way during winter. Carpini records that they often slept on ground after scraping away the snow. It took them until 10 June 1247 to reach Kyiv. From that point their journey became easier: Slavonic Christians welcomed them and treated them hospitably.

Carpini was given the archbishopric of Serbia and became papal legate to Louis IX of France, a much more comfortable task after his grueling journey eastward. He wrote a record of his trip, the Ystoria Mongalorum ("History of Mongol People"), the first European history of the Mongols. Not long after, a much more accurate account of Mongols was written by William Rubruck.

Rubruck, like Carpini, was a Franciscan. Tomorrow I will start an account of the life of their founder.

The Golden Horde

The name "Golden Horde" for the northwestern section of the Mongolian Empire is the English translation of a borrowed phrase from Russian, Zolotáya Ordá (literally "Golden Horde). Ordá also means "camp" or "headquarters." The Modern English "horde" referring to a large and threatening group comes from the reputation of the Mongolian armies advancing against their enemies. Legend says that the tents of the Mongols were golden-hued, hence the adjective.

Batu Khan, a grandson of Genghis Khan, was the founder. A Franciscan named William Rubruck, who traveled all over the Middle and Far East, said he was: 

kind enough to his own people, but he is greatly feared by them. He is, however, most cruel in fight; he is very shrewd and extremely crafty in warfare, for he has been waging war for a long time.

Batu was given the charge to conquer lands to the west by Genghis' son Ögedei 1186 - 1241); Batu's efforts gained what became his headquarters, the Horde.

The Horde was the outskirts of the Empire, and as such very little exists of any written Mongol history or literature from it. The conquered locals were largely Cubans, and important decrees were probably translated from Mongol to Cuban to be distributed to the inhabitants. In the mid-13002 Arabic-Mongol and Persian-Mongol dictionaries began appearing, suggesting their necessity in translating Mongol documents.

Because "Horde" meant "headquarters" or "palace" or "camp," there were other Hordes. Russian chronicles referred to the eastern part of Batu's area as the "White Horde," and the western part became known as the "Blue Horde." Over the years, rule of the Horde changed hands many times up until 1419, when it became split up between different forces.

Still, it was the closest part of the Mongol Empire to Europe, and since the goal of the Khans was to control the entire world, Europe was a target. The Mongolian Invasion of Central Europe will be the next topic.

Mongolian Civil War

The death of Möngke Khan in 1259 led to the Toluid Civil War, a fight between two of the remaining sons of Toluid over who would succeed Möngke. The youngest, Ariq Böke, eventually lost out to Kublai, who then became the Great Khan. The remaining son, Hulagu, returned to his campaign in 1262 to extend the empire westward.

A few years earlier he had led the Sack of Baghdad; the Islamic Empire was no longer strong enough to retaliate against the size of Hulagu's army. The almost total destruction of Baghdad, however, was to have an unforeseen consequence.

The consequence came from the Golden Horde, a group of settled Mongols who ruled over Russia, Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Moldova, and the Caucasus, established by Batu Khan. Batu Khan was another of Genghis Khan's 43 grandchildren. Batu had died in 1255, and his brother Berke was now in charge of a large territory with a large population. Berke was no lesser figure: not only had he succeeded Batu (there was one ruler between them briefly), but he had been sent by Batu to ensure Möngke's succession as Great Khan, managing the ruling council and ensuring that everything to enthrone Möngke happened properly.

In and of itself this would not seem to be a problem, but Berke had converted to Islam in 1252. The destruction of Baghdad and the knowledge and treasures of the House of Wisdom enraged him, and he vowed revenge, saying "He (Hulagu) has sacked all the cities of the Muslims, and has brought about the death of the Caliph. With the help of God I will call him to account for so much innocent blood." He allied himself with the Mamluks, who were to be Hulagu's next target.

Berke began a series of raids on Hulagu's territories. Hulagu retaliated into the Golden Horde's territory. This was the first serious war between major Mongol areas. Berke showed some reluctance and lamented "Mongols are killed by Mongol swords. If we were united, then we would have conquered all of the world." He could not give in, however: he felt the threat to the Golden Horde was sufficient that he had to declare Islamic jihad against a Mongol leader who was his cousin.

On another front, Hulagu's forces lost an important battle against the Mamluks after the alliance with Frankish forces fell out. He lost control of Palestine and Syria.

Hulagu died 8 February 1264. He was succeeded by his son, Abaqa Khan, who spent the next almost 20 years dealing with civil war with relations because of his father's treatment of Baghdad. Kublai managed to hold the Empire together, mostly, but in the 1290s the competing khanates meant there was no longer total unity, with every part of the empire accepting the authority of the Great Khan.

So what exactly was the Golden Horde, and did it ever change color? It did, and I'll explain more tomorrow.