Genoa versus Venice, Part 4

After the most recent events, the pope attempted to stop the conflict between the two, but they would not be dissuaded from their decades-long hostility.

Venice had fared so poorly that it saw the need for more serious aid than the untrained conscripts it had gathered. It turned to places that might join it against Genoa. The republic of Pisa was approached, but they were also a maritime republic and would not have minded if Genoa and Venice destroyed each other.

Venice also approached the Crown of Aragon (the union of Aragon, Barcelona, Provence, and others by a marriage that produced Alfonso II of Aragon in 1157). Aragon had fought with Genoa over Sardinia, and the current ruler of the Crown of Aragon, Peter IV of Aragon, was happy to aid Venice.

The other surprising ally the Venetians found was the Byzantine Empire. Despite the antipathy toward Venice for their actions during the Fourth Crusade, Genoa's conquest of Chios angered Constantinople. Genoa tried to dissuade the Aragonese and the Byzantines from trusting Venice, to no avail.

Genoa saw the odds against them growing, and so they made some bold moves. Existing taxes were diverted to the war effort. A loan of 300,000 lira was forced out of wealthy banks with a promise of substantial returns. All this went to the construction of a larger fleet. The Genoese in the port of Pera across from Constantinople requested aid from their Muslim neighbor, the Ottoman sultan Orhan Ghazi.

In July 1351, a fleet of 60 ships, each holding 180 men, sailed from Genoa. They first attacked a Venetian ally in the Aegean, the Duchy of the Archipelago, capturing its duke and plundering Naxos. The fleet, under the command of admiral Paganino Doria, failed to find the main Venetian or Aragonese fleet to engage them in battle. Doria sailed to Pera where there was a Venetian blockade. When the Genoese approached, Venice sank some of their own ships to prevent capture and fled.

There were battles all over the Mediterranean and Aegean, with no side gaining a clear upper hand. Finally, late in the day on 13 February 1352, with only two hours of light, the fleets were in the same place: southeast of the Bosporus. The Genoese fleet had to face the combined Venetian, Aragonese, and Byzantine fleets.

The Battle of the Bosporus was chaotic, especially since they fought past sundown. Both sides lost many ships and men, and only the withdrawal of the Aragonese and Venetians allowed the Genoese to claim a Pyrrhic victory. Both sides spent weeks nursing their wounds. The Genoese anchored on Orhan's side of the Bosporus. When he offered to continue the battle on 3 March, the other side declined. The Aragonese and Venetian fleets departed, leaving the Byzantines to accept the fact that they would have to live with the Genoese as neighbors.

There was more fighting over Sardinia following all this, but that was between Genoa and Aragon. Twenty years later was the final conflict of the wars between Venice and Genoa, in which Genoa decided to invade Venice itself. See you tomorrow.

The Real Aladdin

Well, not the "real" Aladdin in the sense that he was a man with a magic lamp, but a man who did perform "wonders" in this context.

When Osman Ghazi died in 1323, he left two sons, one of whom would take on the role of continuing Osman's work in creating the Ottoman Empire. There are plenty of examples of princes fighting with each other over the succession, but that did not happen in this case. Prince Orhan became the natural leader, but his brother provided valuable aid.

Alaeddin Erden Ali Pasha (c 1281 - 1331) not only did not clash with Orhan (some scholars think Alaeddin may even have been the elder of the two), but he supported his brother with ideas and projects that advanced the cause of the Ottomans in ways that mere military conquest would not.

There are three innovations for which Alaeddin gets credit during this period, while Orhan led the military and held the title of sultan. It was after a particular conquest in 1328 that Alaeddin visited his brother to congratulate him and to make three suggestions.

The first was to establish their own monetary system to enhance trade and add an air of legitimacy and independence to the Ottomans. Silver coins dating to that year have Orhan's name on one side and "May Allah make his reign eternal" on the other (see illustration).

His next suggestion was to distinguish Orhan's Ottomans from other Turks and Muslims by developing distinctive style of dress. Inspired by the Byzantines, Ottoman government and military officials took on specific clothing styles. Also, based on an Arabic saying that 'the best garment is a white one,' everyday wear was suggested to include a simple white cap to distinguish followers from non-Ottomans.

Alaeddin's most significant contribution may have been in Orhan's wheelhouse: the military. Rather than the previous method of a leader trying to maneuver a vast array of men to do his bidding, the army was divided into separate contingents, each with its own leader who would report to and gain orders from higher up. This hierarchical style of military affairs is so efficient and common that it is difficult to believe that it was not always the case, but charismatic and successful (and unsuccessful) leaders did not always delegate.

Part of the military re-organization involved designating citizens as foot soldiers who could be called up when necessary. Since they had no formal training, however, they were ineffective. Decades after Alaeddin's failed idea, however, something vaguely similar was proposed. Tomorrow I'll tell you the horrifying story of the Janissaries.

The Ottoman Empire

Begun by (and named for) Osman Ghazi (c.1254 - 1323/4), and inspired (perhaps) by a dream, the Ottoman Empire grew to encompass an enormous territory that continued to expand well after the Middle Ages. The illustration shows in dark green what they controlled up to the 17th century, and the lighter green shows territory that considered the Ottomans their overlords.

Osman was succeeded by capable men. His son, Orhan Ghazi (fl.1324 - 1362), was a competent leader of the clan and continued his father's goal of expansion. The conquest of the important Byzantine fortified city of Bursa in Anatolia was completed by Orhan—Osman was suffering from gout by this time, and left battle to others; he died shortly after—who made Bursa the new Ottoman capital.

The defeat of Constantinople and the Byzantine Empire was an important step to increasing the Ottoman territory and power. A period known as the Byzantine-Ottoman Wars began in 1299 and culminated in the taking of Constantinople in 1453, a year and event that I have written about before.

Orhan captured several areas, including Gallipoli in 13543 (at the time called Kallipolis), getting closer to the European mainland. A three-year siege brought Nicaea under Orhan's control in 1331, and Nicomedia in 1337.

Then Orhan made a bold move: he turned his attention to Karesi (now Balıkesir, in the Marmara region of Turkey). Its ruler had died and the deceased's two sons were fighting over the succession. Orhan claimed he was coming in as a bringer of peace. This sounded good, but Karesi was Muslim, and attacking fellow Muslims was not acceptable.

There was, however, no one strong enough to oppose him. One brother was killed in the fighting, the other was captured, and Orhan took over a large Turkish area. This was the start of expansion to the East.

Fighting between brothers over succession was quite common in the Turkish world (and elsewhere, to be fair). In fact, Orhan had a brother whom some scholars think might even have been older. Rather than being a rival, however, he provided valuable help to Orhan. Tomorrow I want to tell you about Alaeddin Erden Ali Pasha, who (we are told) probably contributed as much to the success of the growing Ottoman Empire as Orhan's military choices.