Aimery of Lusignan

Aimery (born c.1153) was one of the sons of the Lord of Poitou, Hugh VIII of Lusignan, and Burgundia of Rancon. His brother Guy has figured largely in the past couple weeks for his time as King of Jerusalem.

After rebelling unsuccessfully against Henry II of England by kidnapping Eleanor of Aquitaine, Aimery fled to the Latin East —not that unusual a move since the Lusignan family had been involved in the Crusades for generations. He married into the influential Ibelin family with the support of King Baldwin IV of Jerusalem and became constable of Jerusalem c.1180. He and Eschiva of Ibelin had six children.

He was a commander at the disastrous Battle of Hattin, and was part of the Siege of Acre. He supported his brother Guy when the barons wanted to remove Guy as king.

After Guy was sent to govern Cyprus and Conrad of Montferrat was chosen to be King of Jerusalem by marrying Queen Isabella, Aimery remained in the office of constable. After Conrad's death and Henry II of Champagne's marriage to Isabella, however, Aimery was involved in a plot to hand the city of Tyre over to Guy. Henry arrested Aimery, but the barons persuaded Henry to release him.

Once freed from prison, Aimery went to Cyprus in 1193 to join Guy. Guy died in 1194, and the nobles of Cyprus chose Aimery as their lord. Aimery started a process of organizing laws and policies in Cyprus to try to raise its status to a kingdom. To do this required him to be acknowledged as king, and only an emperor or a pope could authorize this. He appealed to Pope Celestine III to establish a Latin Church hierarchy (an archbishopric and bishops and dioceses, etc.) on Cyprus.

He also reached out to Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI, promising he would be a vassal to the Emperor if he were granted the right to be crowned King of Cyprus. Henry sent Aimery a golden scepter. A letter from Celestine in December 1196 refers to Aimery as king, so he may have been using the title already, although his coronation was delayed until 1197 to allow Henry time to arrive; Henry was too ill to travel, however. (The illustration shows Aimery's coronation, attended by Henry's chancellor, Conrad.)

Henry's death shortly after Aimery's coronation led to a war of succession in the Empire and denied Aimery the attention and support of a powerful ally.

But now Aimery was a king in his own right, having fled from a king on the mainland. Both were Christian rulers in the Eastern Mediterranean and had similar concerns about maintaining Christian power while surrounded by Muslims. It would be in their best interests to get along, despite hostility in the past. Were they able to put aside their former conflicts for the sake of achieving mutual goals? We'll take a look at that tomorrow.

Henry, Ruler of Jerusalem

After the brutal murder of Conrad of Montferrat right after he was informed that he had been chosen to replace Guy of Lusignan as King of Jerusalem, Henry II of Champagne went back to Tyre to mourn. He was greeted warmly by the people of Tyre, who proposed to make him their new lord. Henry had a certain amount of standing, since he was a nephew to the current kings of both England and France. Then something happened which he likely did not expect.

The Queen of Jerusalem, Isabella, now a widow after Conrad's death, offered to marry Henry, which would make him King of Jerusalem suo jure ("by right of marriage"). Henry was 20 years younger than Conrad (a husband who was imposed upon her; the illustration shows her having her first husband annulled and marrying Conrad), and probably more to the liking of the 20-year-old Isabella.

Henry had doubts. Isabella was pregnant by Conrad, and if the child were a boy, he would be the next heir rather than an heir of Henry's. The barons and Richard I of England agreed that the succession would pass to children of Henry and Isabella. Henry and Isabella married within a week of Conrad's death, Henry was granted all the cities held by Crusaders (but Jerusalem itself was still in the hands of Saladin), and the couple went to live in Acre, recently freed from Muslims.

As for the most recent king, Guy, Richard had Guy pay Henry 40,000 bezants.

There was still more fighting to be done in the Holy Land, and Henry joined Richard to capture or recapture cities from the Muslims. The Third Crusade officially ended on 2 September 1192 with a peace treaty that allowed the existence of the Kingdom of Jerusalem as a narrow strip of land extending south to Jaffa. It was signed by Henry (speaking for Richard), and the heads of the Templars and Hospitallers. Richard declared Henry the leader of all Christian forces in Palestine.

Henry's standing did not go to his head. He never called himself "king," but used his European title of "count of Troyes." His rulings were done in the name of Isabella, and he constantly claimed he did things with her "wish and consent." When Aymar the Monk was elected Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem (a seat vacant for a couple years since the death of Heraclius) by the priests who manage the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, Henry was angered at not having been consulted and arrested them. Their argument was that he did not need to be consulted because he was not king. Pope Celestine III agreed with the priests. Archbishop Josias of Tyre convinced Henry to let the priests go and appease the insult to Aymar by giving a rich fief to Aymar's nephew.

The child of Isabella and Conrad turned out to be a daughter, Maria of Montferrat. This new marriage produced three daughters, of which two survived past childhood, Alice and Philippa.

Henry had an interesting approach to his Muslim neighbors, now that a peace treaty was in place. He requested of Saladin a turban and tunic, wearing these around Acre to show respect for the Muslim residents and neighbors. He gained a reputation for being tolerant to others, and was even hosted by the Assassins (perhaps we'll get to that some day).

Not everything was pleasant, however, and some of the danger came not from Muslims but from other Europeans. I'll tell you about that tomorrow as well.

Walter and Richard I

Walter de Coutances, who became Archbishop of Rouen, gained his position by being closely tied to the kings of England, first Henry II then Richard I. (The illustration is an estimate of Rouen Cathedral as it may have appeared during Walter's time.)

When Richard first succeeded his father, it was Walter as Archbishop of Rouen (a position he had thanks to Richard's father) who absolved him of his youthful rebellion against Henry. Walter went with Richard on the Third Crusade. He got as far as Sicily before Richard got word that there were problems between Prince John, Richard's younger brother, and William Longchamp, the justiciar who had been left in charge of England. Richard trusted Walter to mediate between the two. Longchamp created further problems, however, that caused Walter to take over his duties, if not formally the title, until 1193.

When Richard was being held captive by Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI, the ransom price was 100,000 pounds of silver.  It was not paid all at once, however, and Henry did the honorable thing by allowing Richard to depart captivity once the first payments had arrived and the rest was pledged. In cases such as this, however, guaranteeing that the rest of the payments would arrive was often done by substituting a valuable person as hostage in place of the primary.

Richard called Walter to Germany to take his place. Walter remained there from 1193 to 1194 when the final payments were made. Afterward, Walter chose to remain in Normandy and not return to England. When Richard wanted the site of Andeli, which was in Walter's hands, Walter refused. The revenues from owning that property were valuable to the archbishop. Richard seized the spot anyway, which seemed discourteous to the man who had been a valuable member of the court and sat in prison on Richard's behalf. Richard needed the site for his war against Philip of France, however. Walter placed Normandy under Interdict, meaning no church services could be performed. This included funeral rites: Roger of Hoveden (who also went on the Third Crusade) commented on "the unburied bodies of the dead lying in the streets and square of the cities of Normandy."

Walter went to Rome to get Pope Celestine III to intercede on his behalf. Richard also sent an embassy. Richard made gifts of other lands to Walter and to the diocese of Rouen, including the port city of Dieppe, sufficient to prompt Celestine himself to remove the Interdict. Walter had little to no contact with Richard after this incident. After Richard's death, he had to deal with King John, and I'll talk about that time period next time.

Freeing Richard

On his way back from the Third Crusade, King Richard I of England was captured by Leopold V of Austria, who blamed Richard for the murder of Leopold's cousin, Conrad of Montferrat. Richard had also personally offended Leopold by getting rid of Leopold's banner on the walls of Acre, even though Leopold had been with him at the Siege of Acre.

So when Richard's ship was wrecked near Aquileia and Richard had to travel over land to get back home and he passed through Vienna, Leopold captured him around Christmas 1192. The story goes that he was found in an inn, and was trying to pass himself off as the servant turning the spit of a roasting animal, but was identified by either a signet ring, or his men treating him with deference, or some other slip-up.

Interfering with a Crusader was against papal decree, so when word got out, Pope Celestine III excommunicated Leopold.

Word got back to England of Richard's captivity, but no one knew where he was being held. He was given over to Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI's care on 28 March 1193, who imprisoned him at Trifels Castle. Not only was Henry angered at Richard's previous actions, he also had a goal: conquering all of southern Italy. This required military might, and that required money. Holding a king for ransom was one sure way of acquiring funds.

Henry's status as Holy Roman Emperor made Celestine reluctant to excommunicate him. Richard's treatment was initially respectful, but Richard treated Henry with disdain. Henry convened a council to condemn Richard for the capture of Cyprus, the insult to Leopold, the death of Conrad, and making a truce with Saladin. Richard defended his actions, and explained his lack of respect for Henry's imperial title by saying "I am born in a rank which recognizes no superior but God."

Afterward, Richard was kept in chains "so heavy that a horse or ass would have struggled to move under them." Henry demanded a ransom of 100,000 pounds of silver. Richard's mother, Eleanor of Aquitaine, now in her early 70s, took action, riding the country to raise funds and writing the pope about the horrible situation. A tax of 25% of the value of property was decreed against layman and all churches in England. Meanwhile, Richard's brother John and King Philip of France offered Henry 80,000 marks to keep Richard at least until the end of September 1194.

Henry refused their offer. The ransom from England came through, and Richard was freed on 4 February 1194. (The illustration shows Richard kissing the feet of the emperor.) Upon his return to England he forgave John's actions and named John his heir for the time being.

But John had allied himself with Philip of France, and Philip was not to be forgiven. Richard made plans for war with France. I'll tell you more about that tomorrow.

(Note: Much of this post appeared previously on 31 March 2023.)

The Vallombrosians

Giovanni Gualberto (c. 985 – 12 July 1073) was not the sort of person you would expect to found a monastic order. A nobleman born in a castle, he hunted down the man who killed his brother in order to get revenge. Finding the man in Florence, he was about to exact his revenge when the man threw himself on the ground with arms outstretched in the form of a cross and begged for mercy in the name of Christ.

Giovanni had a change of heart and forgave the man. On his way home, he stopped at the church at San Miniato to pray. Legend says that the figure of Christ on the crucifix bowed its head to him, supposedly in recognition of his act of mercy. This is the subject of the 19th century artist Burne-Jones' painting of "The Merciful Knight" (shown here).

Giovanni decided to cut his hair and start wearing a borrowed monk's habit. He joined the monastery at San Miniato, but felt he needed a more ascetic life. He spent some time with the monks at Camaldoli, but eventually founded his own monastery at Vallombrosa in 1036.

The Vallombrosian Congregation is now part of the Benedictine Confederation and has nine houses and a few dozen monks, but for it to have nine locations suggests great popularity in the past (see below). Giovanni adopted the Rule of St. Benedict, but stressed more austerity than the Rule. Poverty is strictly enforced, silence is mandatory and constant, cloistering is essential: the monks did not leave the premises even to help others. While the Rule of St. Benedict requires work, Giovanni's system required lay brothers to do any essential work, while the monks themselves spent their entire day in silence and contemplation. They wore habits originally of gray or ash-colored, but now wear the traditional Benedictine garb.

After Giovanni's death, the order spread, especially after a bull by Pope Urban II in 1090 gave the Vallombrosians papal support and protection. A bull by Pope Paschal II in 1115 mentions 12 Vallombrosian houses, and one by Pope Anastasius IV mentions 24. In Pope Innocent III's time there were more than 60 houses.

Giovanni was canonized in 1193 by Pope Celestine III.

The Benedictine Confederation has members all over the world, many founded in the 19th century. There were two other groups founded in the 13th century, the Silvestrines and the English. We will talk about the Silvestrine Congregation next.

Alfonso's Marriage Blues

King Alfonso IX of León (1171 - 1230) may be noted for calling the Three Estates together to advise him—the first such gathering in Western Europe—but not everything could be resolved in that manner.

Every ruler desires an heir, and therefore needs a spouse. Alfonso found his in 1191 in Theresa of Portugal. Theresa was 15 at the time, daughter of the king of Portugal, Sancho I. They had three children: Sancha, Dulce, and Ferdinand. Elsewhere I have mentioned how, in 1224, Alfonso tried to marry Sancha to John of Brienne. John chose a younger daughter by a later wife of Alfonso, but it might not have been just Sancha's age that disqualified her in John's eyes (he was, after all, a good many years older).

In fact, Sancha's "status" might have been a problem for John. Theresa of Portugal was Alfonso's cousin, and Pope Celestine III condemned the marriage on the grounds of consanguinity. Celestine had his papal legate declare the marriage nullified, placing both León and Portugal under Interdict. John might have avoided the match because Sancha could be considered illegitimate and therefore not eligible to inherit León.

Only a year later, Celestine excommunicated Alfonso for "consorting with the enemy." Alfonso clashed with his cousin, Alfonso VIII of Castile. Prior wars had seen territorial boundaries shifting, and León wanted some of their land back. Alfonso invaded Castile with the aid of Muslims, which was a strong offense in Celestine's eyes. (Alfonso VIII had proven an enemy to Muslims, mentioned here.) To create peace between Castile and León, they did what many warring nations did at the time: arranged a marriage between representatives of the two. In this case, the marriage was between Alfonso IX and Berengaria of Castile in 1197.

The problem was that Berengaria was Alfonso VIII's daughter, and therefore her husband's first cousin once removed. (Her paternal grandfather and Alfonso's father were brothers.) León was placed under Interdict once again due to consanguinity. In 1198, Pope Innocent III declared this second marriage annulled, but the couple decided to stay together until 1204, when Alfonso decided he should attack Castile again. (A series of treaties ultimately resolved the borders and the hostilities.)

As for the Interdiction, the pope realized that, if the people went years without the benefits of the mass and sacraments, they would have no reason to support the church financially. He lifted the Interdict on the country, but kept it on the king.

Another strike against Alfonso (but helped make him historically memorable) was his numerous affairs and subsequent numerous illegitimate children. That family tree had many branches, which I'll lay out tomorrow.

To Kidnap a King

On his way back from the Third Crusade, King Richard I "Lionheart" of England was captured.

He had made many enemies in Europe. The Byzantine Emperor Isaac II Angelos was one, because Richard annexed the island of Cyprus (a Byzantine possession). Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI was angered because Richard supported King Tancred of Sicily, who had usurped the position from its proper heiress, Henry's wife Constance. Leopold of Austria blamed Richard for the murder of Leopold's cousin, Conrad of Montferrat.

So when Richard's ship was wrecked near Aquileia and Richard had to travel over land to get back home, he passed through Vienna, enabling Leopold to capture him around Christmas 1192. Interfering with a Crusader was against papal decree, but Richard had also personally offended Leopold by getting rid of Leopold's banner on the walls of Acre, even though Leopold had been with him at the Siege of Acre. When word got out, Pope Celestine III excommunicated Leopold.

Word got back to England of Richard's captivity, but no one knew where he was being held. He was given over to Henry VI's care on 28 March 1193, who imprisoned him at Trifels Castle. Not only was Henry angered at Richard's previous actions, he also had a goal: conquering all of southern Italy. This required military might, and that required money. Holding a king for ransom was one sure way of acquiring funds.

Henry's status as Holy Roman Emperor made Celestine reluctant to excommunicate him. Richard's treatment was initially respectful, but Richard treated Henry with disdain. Henry convened a council to condemn Richard for the capture of Cyprus, the insult to Leopold, the death of Conrad, and making a truce with Saladin. Richard defended his actions, and explained his lack of respect for Henry's imperial title by saying "I am born in a rank which recognizes no superior but God."

Afterward, Richard was kept in chains "so heavy that a horse or ass would have struggled to move under them." Henry demanded a ransom of 150,000 marks (100,000 pounds of silver). Richard's mother, Eleanor of Aquitaine, now in her early 70s, took action, riding the country to raise funds and writing the pope about the horrible situation. A tax of 25% of the value of property was decreed against layman and all churches. Meanwhile, Richard's brother John and King Philip of France offered Henry 80,000 marks to keep Richard at least until Michaelmas 1194 (29 September in Europe).

Henry did something honorable and refused their offer. The ransom from England came through, and Richard was freed on 4 February 1194. (The illustration shows Richard kissing the feet of the emperor.) Upon his return to England he forgave John's actions and named John his heir (instead of their nephew Arthur, son of their brother Geoffrey).

And now for something completely different: Michaelmas. What was it about, and why did I have to specify "in Europe" above? I'll explain next time.