The Last Death of the Second Barons' War

This post is about Margaret of England (29 September 1240 – 26 February 1275), the daughter of King Henry III. She was in her 20s during the Second Barons' War, but was living in Scotland because she was married to King Alexander III of Scotland.

Life in Scotland wasn't pleasant for her. She was 11 and he was 10 when they were betrothed in York; they moved to Edinburgh a year later. Because they were considered too young for consummating the marriage, they were kept apart by Alexander's regency council, which made her lonely and upset. Her mother, Eleanor of Provence, sent her personal physician to check on her, and he stated that she was pale and depressed.

King Henry spoke to the regency council and came to an agreement. When the two were 14 years of age they were allowed to consummate the marriage, and Alexander would have power handed over to him when he turned 21. Life got better for her after that.

The story of the Second Barons' War has been covered in the past week here. At the Battle of Evesham, the chief instigator, Simon de Montfort, had been killed and hacked to pieces by the supporters of King Henry. Simon had been married to Henry III's sister, making him Margaret's uncle.

Margaret's older brother, Edward (later King Edward I) gave her an esquire as a gift. In the summer of 1273, some time after the Second Barons' War had been settled, Margaret was recovering after the birth of her son David (who did not survive to adulthood). On an outing near Perth with her confessor, several maidens and esquires, one of the retainers—the one gifted to her by Edward—went down to the river to wash his hands.

According to her confessor, she told her maidens to push him in "as a joke." The current was very strong, however, and he was swept away and drowned, as was the servant boy who jumped in to help save him. This was seen as regrettable, but the story persists that he was one of the men who had attacked and killed her uncle Simon, making this esquire the last casualty of the Second Barons' War. Whether the push was a prank or—as some surmise—a punishment will never be known.

Margaret died at the age of 34. Margaret's mother, Eleanor of Provence, lived much longer and had a lot more influence on the country of which she was queen but also was not always happy with her new country. We'll visit her story tomorrow.

Second Baron's War Ends

Simon de Montfort was in control of London in April 1264. Northampton was under siege by supporters of King Henry, and Simon assembled his army to go stop the royalists, but he was too late. Simon then went to Kent to besiege Rochester Castle, held in support of Henry by constable Sir Roger de Leybourne (1215–1271), whose father, also called Roger, was on the side of rebels in the First Barons' War.

Roger was originally on the side of Simon, but changed his mind when he heard of an alliance Simon had made.

Simon decided to make an ally of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, the Prince of Gwynedd. Wales was England's enemy, and the followers of Simon started to turn on him when he and Llywelyn made peace. The Welsh Marcher Lords, English nobles guarding castles along the Welsh border, were friendly with Henry's eldest son Edward, and rallied around Edward and the royalist cause.

Prince Edward's forces defeated several of Montfort's allies at the Warwickshire market town of Kenilworth, even though the rebels had been bolstered by Welsh forces. Simon was moving across the Severn to join his son's army, and saw an army approaching flying his son's banners. Edward had seized the banners at Kenilworth and was using them to fool the rebels.

They encountered each other at the Battle of Evesham when Simon—who was hemmed on three sides by the River Avon—realized too late that he had been fooled and attempted a foolish uphill charge against a superior force. Edward had appointed a dozen men to avoid direct fighting in the encounter and search specifically for Simon. Having been located, Simon was stabbed in the neck by Roger Mortimer, 1st Baron Mortimer. The royalists attacked the corpse, cutting off his head, ripping out his intestines, cutting off his testicles and hanging them on his nose, etc. His hands and feet were cut off and sent to various parts of England as a sign of the consequences of treason. (The illustration is of Simon's body being mutilated on the battlefield.)

Fighting continued, but eventually the royalists won. There are two follow-ups to offer: the Dictum of Kenilworth between Henry and the rebels, and the story of Simon's niece by marriage who was Henry's daughter, Margaret of England. We'll cover Kenilworth tom arrow and Margaret the next day.

Second Barons' War Against the Jews

In February 1264, after the Mise of Amiens, the fighting between the forces of Simon de Montfort and King Henry III began in earnest. One of the biggest moves made by the rebels was the attacks on the Jews.

Part of the Provisions of Oxford created by the barons was demanding the cancellation of Jewish debts. Attacks on Jewish communities were devastating. Henry de Montfort and Robert Earl Ferrers led an attack that killed most of the Jews in Worcester. Robert had borrowed heavily from the Jews of Worcester. He plundered homes and religious houses and stole the records of loans.

Another of the rebels, John fitz John, was part of the attack on Jews in London where 500 were killed.  John fitz John was said to have killed two of the leading Jewish figures, Isaac son of Aaron and Cok son of Abraham, with his bare hands. There was no offering to the Jews the choice of converting to Christianity as was sometimes offered in the past (such as the story of Clifford's Tower, although that was a cruel lie). The records of the Domus Conversorum ("House of Converts") established by Henry for converted Jews show no Jews were admitted in that year. A few were sent to the Tower of London for incarceration.

Simon the Younger extended his anti-Jewish pogroms to Winchester, Lincoln, and Cambridge. Gilbert de Clare, the 7th Earl of Gloucester whose father had been a royalist but who decided to join the rebels once he gained the title, led the attacks on Jews in Canterbury (where a few Jewish women were forced to convert) and Northampton.

The chief goal was less religious than financial. Since the incident at Clifford's Tower, the Crown had established a method for keeping track of Jewish debt. It was easier for the king to tax the Jews whenever he needed money than to get it from the barons. The Crown therefore desired to have accurate records of who owed what to whom. Cities and towns with large Jewish populations maintained archa, chests in which records were kept that the king could check on any time. The attacks not only killed Jews, they destroyed the archa to erase any records of debt.

The tide for the Barons was starting to turn, however. See you tomorrow.

The Second Barons' War Begins

So the first phase of the Second Barons' War happened very quickly. The rebellious barons invaded London and captured King Henry III and Queen Eleanor of Provence. Simon de Montfort, who was married to Henry's sister, assumed control of the government, making rulings in Henry's name.

Much of the country was still loyal to the king, however, and there were nobles with soldiers who opposed Simon. Henry's son Edward (later King Edward I) had originally dabbled with rebelling against his father (a common occurrence in English politics), but now decided to become leader of the royalist party. He brought his own forces to seize Windsor from the rebels.

Widespread fighting was inevitable, and so they turned to King Louis IX of France. Why? One of the provisions of Magna Carta was that France's king would be brought in to mediate between England's king and his barons.

Henry was allowed to go to France in December 1263 to present his side to Louis. Simon, having sustained a broken leg during fighting, did not make the trip. He was represented by Peter de Montfort and others. (The illustration shows the letter, dated October 1263, explaining Henry's case, with the seals of the nobles who supported him attached.)

Henry complained that he had the right to appoint his own ministers, that his castles had been ruined or destroyed by the rebels, and demanded restitution of £300,000 and 200,000 marks. The barons' statement points out that Henry had accepted the Provisions of Oxford and then violated them. There were other accusations.

On 23 January 1264, Louis made his decision, called the Mise [settlement] of Amiens. Since the pope had already declared that Henry's oath (made on the Gospels) was forgiven and that he did not have to follow the Provisions, Louis ruled completely in Henry's favor. Louis, also a king himself, was not very likely to make a decision that diminished a king's authority. (Also, Eleanor of Provence was Louis' sister-in-law, so Louis may have seen this as a family matter.)

Rather than a solution, this put the conflict between the barons and royal authority right back to square one. Nothing could stop the war that was about to erupt. See you next time.

The Provisions Overturned

The Provisions of Oxford, a result of the barons demanding reforms from King Henry III during the Mad Parliament in exchange for raising money for him, were overturned a few years later.

Henry's need for money came from trying to finance a war against the Hohenstaufens for the Kingdom of Sicily. Henry wanted it for his younger son Edmund. Pope Innocent IV wanted Henry to "buy" it to avoid giving the Hohenstaufens a foothold in Italy (the Kingdom of Sicily included the Regno, that held much of southern Italy, right on the papacy's threshold).

Although Henry had sworn on the Gospel to accept the Provisions, a papal bull in 1261 absolved Henry of the need to follow them. The barons called their own parliament to re-assert control over government, but Henry was not about to back down, and he still had several powerful earls and barons on his side. Simon de Montfort, one of the chief instigators of rebellion (even though he was married to Henry's sister), saw they were outmatched and fled to France.

The First Barons' War that ended with Magna Carta also set up a method by which the King of France would mediate disputes between King John and the barons (illustration). This was tried with King Louis and Henry versus the barons, but there was little agreement on each side.

Henry's need for financial support disappeared when he gave up trying to gain Sicily for Edmund, and therefore his reason for agreeing to the barons' demands disappeared. Then, in 1262, one of his strongest supporters, Richard de Clare, 6th Earl of Gloucester, died. Richard's son and successor, Gilbert de Clare, brought the resources of Gloucester to the side of the rebels.

Henry's re-assertion of his ultimate authority continued to anger the barons and earls, and in April 1263 several of them invited Simon de M Montfort back to England to join them in opposition. Simon gathered all the barons opposed to the king at Oxford. Before the end of 1263 both sides had raised large armies. Simon de Montfort's army marched on London where they found local support. Henry and his queen were trapped in the Tower of London, but before long were taken prisoner and de Montfort took control of England.

Not everyone approved of this usurpation, or of de Montfort himself. We'll look at what happened next tomorrow.

The Mad Parliament

King Henry III had spent lavishly on many things, including trying to fund a war to gain the Kingdom of Sicily for his younger son Edmund. He was confronted by a number of barons who would only agree to raise money for him if he would commit to some reforms.

He called Parliament to gather at Westminster Hall (the illustration shows the room wherein they would have gathered) on 9 April 1258 to raise money. Three days later, Simon de Montfort and others refused the king's request to provide funds. They were given three days to reconsider, and so three days later several earls and barons and knights returned to Westminster, fully armed, to repeat their refusal and told the king he would get his money if he would submit to their policy demands.

Henry had little choice but to agree, and so he swore on the Gospel that he would go along with their demands and a commission was formed, 12 chosen by Henry and 12 chosen by the opposition, to meet at Oxford in June and discuss future policy. The result was the Provisions of Oxford.

The provisions re-organized government and could be called the first constitution. (The Magna Carta was not a reorganization of how government worked; it was a list of policies.) Under the Provisions, Parliament met regularly thrice each year, not just when the king wanted it. A council of 15 was created to manage appointments of ministers instead of having the king pick all his people. Parliament would oversee the council's actions.

Besides 15 members, the council would also include the justiciar, the chancellor, and the treasurer, and others. It was unlikely that the 15 would all be able to hang about the king all the time, so usually a few were around and would decide if any matter was important enough to summon the others. The chancellor, keeper of the king's seal, was forced to agree that he would not use the seal to approve an important grant unless a majority of the 15 greed. These checks and balances were unusual in a monarchy.

In an unusual move, the provisions were copied and sent to all the sheriffs of all the counties in three languages: Latin, French, and (Middle) English. The use of English was a signal of the barons' objection to all the French influences and advisors of the king.

The Provisons of Oxford were only supposed to be in effect for 12 years until a more permanent and more wide-spread set of changes could be devised. They lasted for one year. I'll explain tomorrow.

The Second Barons' War—Causes

The Second Barons' War started in 1264 by Simon de Montfort, the 6th Earl of Leicester, against King Henry III of England. Henry was relying to much on favorites for advice—many of them from France, which annoyed the English lords—and the barons of the land wanted to have more authority in guiding king and country.

Ironically, de Montfort was one of those French foreigners whom Henry favored with not only his title (originally withheld, though his by right through his English mother), but also by marriage to Henry's sister. Such a royal marriage was a political matter, and traditionally the barons would be consulted. So de Montfort himself was one of the reasons the barons were not pleased with their king.

de Montfort started to turn against Henry when de Montfort was put on trial for actions in Gascony. He had been named governor of Gascony in 1248, whereupon he exercised his authority by suppressing the local lords' excessive behavior. Although ultimately acquitted of improper behavior, de Montfort was relieved of the title in 1252, and Henry himself went to Gascony to reconcile with the locals.

The insult to de Montfort caused a falling out between him and Henry.

Another point of contention was the control the king had over the Jewish population. (See the Statute of Jewry post.) Often, when the king wanted an influx of money, he would tax the Jewish population exorbitantly. The Jewish moneylenders would sometimes raise cash quickly by selling the debt contracts to someone with money to buy them. A wealthy lord would buy the contracts at a cheaper price, then start to collect (rather than use the long-term method of allowing interest to grow, since Christians were forbidden to charge interest). This impoverished many.

The death of Hugh of Lincoln in 1255, blamed on the Jews, also inflamed anti-semitism. That, debts barons owed to Jews, and anti-Jewish policies promoted by the Church helped give de Montfort an enemy and motivation to create widespread change to the political system. He called for the cancellation of all Jewish debt. (Note that France was more anti-Jew than England, having expelled all Jews in 1182 by order of King Philip II shortly after his coronation.) de Montfort himself expelled all Jews from Leicester back in 1231.

Another point of contention between the barons and the king was Henry's attempt to gain the throne of Sicily for his son Edmund, which he attempted to buy from Pope Innocent IV. The barons objected to Henry's attempt to raise money and start a war against the Hohenstaufens for Sicily.

This gave the barons an opening to curb the king's power, however. They would agree to make up the financial losses of his war for Sicily, if he would agree to some demands of theirs. I'll explain the deal they made next time.

Simon and Eleanor

After Simon de Montfort failed to gain the hand of the Countess of Flanders, he was offered a different marriage partner: the sister of King Henry III of England, Eleanor of England. Henry may have thought it would be good to use his sister to forge strong bonds between Simon and the royal family.

Also called Eleanor Plantagenet (1215 – 13 April 1275), she was the youngest child of King John. She never knew her father, who died when she was only a year old. When she was nine she had been married to the 34-year-old William Marshal, whose father (also William Marshal) had organized the northern barons to support Young Henry when the French were invading England. Marshal senior died in 1219, and young William had succeeded him as 2nd Earl of Pembroke.

They were married in 1224, but William died in 1231 after producing no children. The now-16 Eleanor swore an oath of chastity to the Archbishop of Canterbury.

She met Simon seven years later when she was 23. Simon wanted to marry her (Matthew Paris said he was attracted to her beauty as well as her wealth), Eleanor was willing to marry him, her brother Henry approved, and the two were married quietly on 7 January 1238 in Westminster Palace at the King's own chapel.

The English nobles objected to the king's sister marrying a foreigner. The king's brother, Richard of Cornwall, started to revolt as well, but Henry gave him 6000 marks to sit down and shut up.

The Archbishop of Canterbury, Edmund of Abingdon (c.1174 – 1240), objected because Eleanor had made that vow of chastity in front of him. He declared the marriage invalid. Simon chose to make a pilgrimage to Rome to ask for papal approval, which Gregory IX gave.

The couple had seven children, most of whom grew up and did well. Their union, however, did not mean that Simon was loyal to his brother-in-law. Simon was a principal of the Second Barons' War, which we should look at next.

Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl

We have to distinguish Simon's title, because there was more than one prominent Englishman with that name. Simon the 6th Earl of Leicester (also 1st Earl of Chester), was born c.1208. His father was the 5th Earl, and also called Simon de Montfort. Another way to distinguish them is that the father was Simon IV, and the one we're talking about today is Simon V. His mother was Alix de Montmorency, a French noblewoman, who died when Simon was a teenager.

Simon IV accompanied his father on campaigns against the Cathars and was present at the Siege of Toulouse. He took part in the Barons Crusade to the Holy Land. His brother, Amaury, also participated in these endeavors.

Although Simon's father was the 5th Earl of Leicester, that man had claimed a lot of territory on the continent during the Albigensian Crusade and was becoming more powerful than King John of England liked.

Simon IV was killed in 1218 by a stone from a mangonel during the Siege of Toulouse, but King John did not allow Simon V to succeed to the Earldom of Leicester after Simon IV's death, giving it instead to Simon IV's cousin, Ranulf de Blondeville.

Simon V came to England in 1229 to meet with the current king, Henry III. Simon spoke French, which was also at that time the language of the Court, and Henry seemed to trend toward having advisors who were from France.

Because of territory claimed by Simon V in France, Simon IV and Amaury owed allegiance to the French king. The two brothers came to an agreement: Simon would give up any rights to the French lands, and Amaury would give up his rights to the English lands.

Henry then allowed Simon IV to approach Ranulph (who was childless) and ask to be his heir for the earldom. Ranulph assented, but Simon did not gain the title until 1239.

In 1236, Simon IV wanted to marry Joan, Countess of Flanders, which would have given the next Earl of Leicester a prominent foothold next to France. The French king did not approve, and Joan married someone else.

Simon was about to make an even better marriage from a political standpoint, which we will start with tomorrow.