Henry, Ruler of Jerusalem

After the brutal murder of Conrad of Montferrat right after he was informed that he had been chosen to replace Guy of Lusignan as King of Jerusalem, Henry II of Champagne went back to Tyre to mourn. He was greeted warmly by the people of Tyre, who proposed to make him their new lord. Henry had a certain amount of standing, since he was a nephew to the current kings of both England and France. Then something happened which he likely did not expect.

The Queen of Jerusalem, Isabella, now a widow after Conrad's death, offered to marry Henry, which would make him King of Jerusalem suo jure ("by right of marriage"). Henry was 20 years younger than Conrad (a husband who was imposed upon her; the illustration shows her having her first husband annulled and marrying Conrad), and probably more to the liking of the 20-year-old Isabella.

Henry had doubts. Isabella was pregnant by Conrad, and if the child were a boy, he would be the next heir rather than an heir of Henry's. The barons and Richard I of England agreed that the succession would pass to children of Henry and Isabella. Henry and Isabella married within a week of Conrad's death, Henry was granted all the cities held by Crusaders (but Jerusalem itself was still in the hands of Saladin), and the couple went to live in Acre, recently freed from Muslims.

As for the most recent king, Guy, Richard had Guy pay Henry 40,000 bezants.

There was still more fighting to be done in the Holy Land, and Henry joined Richard to capture or recapture cities from the Muslims. The Third Crusade officially ended on 2 September 1192 with a peace treaty that allowed the existence of the Kingdom of Jerusalem as a narrow strip of land extending south to Jaffa. It was signed by Henry (speaking for Richard), and the heads of the Templars and Hospitallers. Richard declared Henry the leader of all Christian forces in Palestine.

Henry's standing did not go to his head. He never called himself "king," but used his European title of "count of Troyes." His rulings were done in the name of Isabella, and he constantly claimed he did things with her "wish and consent." When Aymar the Monk was elected Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem (a seat vacant for a couple years since the death of Heraclius) by the priests who manage the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, Henry was angered at not having been consulted and arrested them. Their argument was that he did not need to be consulted because he was not king. Pope Celestine III agreed with the priests. Archbishop Josias of Tyre convinced Henry to let the priests go and appease the insult to Aymar by giving a rich fief to Aymar's nephew.

The child of Isabella and Conrad turned out to be a daughter, Maria of Montferrat. This new marriage produced three daughters, of which two survived past childhood, Alice and Philippa.

Henry had an interesting approach to his Muslim neighbors, now that a peace treaty was in place. He requested of Saladin a turban and tunic, wearing these around Acre to show respect for the Muslim residents and neighbors. He gained a reputation for being tolerant to others, and was even hosted by the Assassins (perhaps we'll get to that some day).

Not everything was pleasant, however, and some of the danger came not from Muslims but from other Europeans. I'll tell you about that tomorrow as well.

Selecting the King

The question of who should be King of Jerusalem came up after the death of Queen Sibylla of Jerusalem during the Siege of Acre. Her husband, Guy of Lusignan, was only king suo jure (by right of marriage), and therefore was no longer the rightful king.

The next in line was Sibylla's younger sister, Isabella of Jerusalem. The nobles were hostile to Guy, not liking him from the start, but long ago Sibylla had tricked them into accepting Guy. Guy proved his unworthiness by refusing to relinquish control of the kingdom to Isabella.

A further complication was that Isabella was married to Humphrey of Toron. Humphrey was a friend of Guy's and did not want to replace him. Despite pressure from other nobles, Humphrey pledged his loyalty to Guy. That loyalty got him nowhere because the nobles did not think Humphrey would be suitable as king by right of being married to Isabella, so they wanted to replace him. An annulment was arranged so that Isabella could be married to Conrad of Montferrat (brother of Sibylla's first husband, William), who so disliked Guy that when Guy and Sibylla fled Jerusalem after its takeover by Saladin, Conrad would not give them shelter in Tyre.

Once married to Conrad, the couple retired to Tyre, leaving the Siege of Acre to others, including Guy, and taking steps to ensure the succession (Isabella did get pregnant at this time). The European leaders at Acre were divided on the issue: Philip II of France supported Conrad, Richard I of England supported Guy (who was a vassal of Richard due to Guy being Lord of Poitou).

In April 1192, Richard called a meeting of all the European and Holy Land nobles. By this time, Richard may have still wanted Guy to be king, but the vote for Conrad was unanimous. Richard wanted Guy to have something, so he made him the governor of Cyprus, which Richard had captured on his way to the Holy Land. Guy was in Cyprus until his death in 1194, having squandered the country's treasury.

Henry II of Champagne, a nephew to both Philip and Richard, who had been at the Siege of Acre prior to his uncles arriving, was tasked with going to Tyre with the news of Conrad's election. Conrad and Isabella were happy to have a resolution to the conflict.

Conrad was never crowned, however. On 28 April, a few days after the election, Conrad:

...rode home through the city flanked by a pair of guards. As he turned down a narrow street, he saw two men sitting on either side of the road. As Conrad approached, they stood up and walked to meet him. One of them was holding a letter. Conrad was intrigued but did not dismount. Rather, he stretched down from his horse and reached out to take the letter. As he did so, the man holding the letter drew a knife and stabbed upwards, plunging the blade deep into Conrad's body. At the same time, the other man leaped onto the back of Conrad's horse and stabbed him in the side. [source]

One of the men was killed, the other captured and tortured. They turned out to be members of the Assassins, and might have been contracted by Saladin. Under torture, however, the surviving assassin maintained the order came from Richard (the Assassins had been known to form an alliance with Christians). Humphrey of Toron was also a suspect.

According to Richard I's chroniclers, on his deathbed Conrad said Tyre should be handed over to Richard, which is certainly suspect, especially since Conrad knew that Richard did not support Conrad.

So who became King of Jerusalem? As it turns out, Henry II of Champagne! We'll see how that came about tomorrow.

The Siege of Acre, Part 7

Richard I of England was now the leader of the Crusader force, and it was his responsibility to manage the final terms of surrender of the city of Acre. The Muslim garrison had been incarcerated, and Saladin needed to pay ransoms for them. Also, Christians taken prisoner by Saladin needed to be returned. Meanwhile, Richard's people began repairing the walls.

On 11 August the first exchange was to be made, with Saladin bringing money and captured Crusaders. Richard created a problem by complaining that there were prisoners of Saladin that were supposed to be included. On the 20th, unhappy with delays, Richard executed 2700 of his Muslim prisoners, excluding the nobles for which he could get higher ransoms from Saladin.

When Saladin learned of this, he killed all the Christian captives. Of course there was a complete breakdown of any negotiations. Richard decided the goal was to re-take Jerusalem, and the next step for him was to take over the important port city of Jaffa. He left Acre in the hands of crusaders Bertram de Verdun and Stephen Longchamp and took the army south toward Jaffa.

Saladin followed, catching up on 7 September and leading to the Battle of Arsuf which was related here and here. Arsuf turned out to be disastrous for Saladin's army and his reputation. Richard headed toward Jerusalem after securing Jaffa. Saladin proceeded to slight fortresses in Gaza and Ascalon.

(Slighting was the deliberate destruction of a structure to reduce their usefulness to an enemy. Robert the Bruce slighted English castles after taking them over. King John of England destroyed the Château de Montrésor in France during his French war. During the Crusading period, many Muslim leaders slighted fortified places to prevent their use as secure bases for the invading Christians.)

Since the Siege of Acre has been our focus, and that is over, let's turn back to the question that arose during the event: the rightful King of Jerusalem. Guy of Lusignan was only king suo jure (by right of marriage) to Queen Sibylla. With her death, her younger sister Isabella became queen. Isabella's marriage to Humphrey of Toron was annulled and she was married to Conrad of Montferrat, who took her back to Tyre to keep her safe (and probably to secure the succession by begetting an heir). It was time to settle the matter of the rightful King of Jerusalem. We'll look at that tomorrow.

The Siege of Acre, Part 5

So Conrad of Montferrat married Isabella of Jerusalem, the rightful queen, and took her back to Tyre while the former king by marriage to Isabella's older sister Sibylla, Guy of Lusignan, refused to surrender the kingship and stayed at the Siege of Acre. This was in the fall of 1190.

Attacks on the walls on 31 December and 6 January led to a partial collapse and an attempt by the Crusaders to enter the city, but they failed. On 13 February Saladin breached the Crusader defenses to get to the city and reinforce the soldiers there. Conrad, back at Acre, tried to breach the city from the sea, but a contrary wind prevented him from getting close enough.

The Siege itself was showing no signs of resolution, either. Acre now had a garrison of some 20,000. Saladin had the Crusader camp surrounded so that more men and supplies could not arrive. Poor sanitation led to illness. Frederick of Swabia, the son of Barbarossa (who died trying to get to Acre), died of illness. Leopold V of Austria took command of the German forces. The Patriarch Heraclius also died during this time.

Then news came that other leaders from Europe were coming, and Saladin's chances of success were slimming.

On 20 April 1191, King Philip II of France arrived with a Genoese fleet and started building siege engines. King Richard I "Lionheart" of England arrived on 8 June (illustration), accompanied by 100 ships and a total of 8000 men. He requested a cease-fire for three days to allow him to meet with Saladin, but both Richard and Philip became ill and there was no meeting.

On the question of the rightful King of Jerusalem, France and England disagreed. Philip, the Genoese, and the Knights Templar supported Conrad (Philip's cousin) as King of Jerusalem. Richard, along with the Pisans and the Knights Hospitaller, felt Guy should remain king. (Guy was lord of Poitou and therefore Richard was his liege lord.) This debate would not be settled right away.

Not all of the English had arrived yet, so Richard wanted to wait before attacking Acre (no sense starting without all your forces in place). Philip was ready to start battering the walls and did not wait: on 17 June he started using his siege engines. The Acre garrison signaled Saladin that they needed support by sending up smoke. A pattern formed: a breach in the walls would bring the Crusaders attacking, which would be the sign for Saladin's forces to attack the Crusader camp. This would cause the Crusaders to turn around to defend themselves. This gave Acre time to try to repair the breach.

Tomorrow we'll discuss the final battle and the end result for Acre.

Château Gaillard

It was called the Bellum Castrum de Rupe ("the Fair Castle at the Rock"), and has a fascinating history, starting with the illegal seizure of the site.

It was built on a hill overlooking the River Seine in the Andeli territory of Walter de Coutances, Archbishop of Rouen. Richard I of England, King of England and Duke of Normandy, wanted the site for a fortress from which he could mount a campaign against King Philip II of France, who was encroaching on Richard's continental possessions. The archbishop refused, but Richard seized it anyway, causing a controversy that was explained here.

Although a treaty with Philip agreed that neither of them would attempt to build on the site, Richard went ahead anyway, and created a magnificent fortress in a mere two years. Richard's father, Henry II, had spent enormous sums building castles to protect the royal possessions, and Richard's efforts in building were significantly reduced, but Château Gaillard cost £12,000 from 1196-98, whereas only £7,000 was spent on construction in England.

Some of the earliest information we have on castle construction is recorded concerning Gaillard. We see lists of payments to miners, quarrymen, and the carters who brought stone to the site; stonecutters, masons, and lime workers for mortar; carpenters, smiths, assistants, and even water carriers; and soldiers who guarded the site while the work went on. Missing is mention of a master mason, who would have overseen the project, and it is suggested that Richard himself chose and ordered the design. Richard spent a lot of time during the two years of construction on the site.

It was designed with three enclosures separated by dry moats, and with machicolations, which were protected openings above the outside edge of the walls so that defenders could shoot down on anyone reaching the base of the wall [link].

There were incidents during construction. William of Newburgh wrote of a "rain of blood" that fell in May 1198, that alarmed the men as a bad omen, but Richard did not let it stay the work. Also, when some Welsh mercenaries were ambushed by the French, three French soldiers were captured and thrown off the walls to execute them.

Richard did not have much opportunity to enjoy his creation, dying less than a year after it was finished. The history of Gaillard did not stop there, however, and tomorrow I'll tell you how his successor, John, lost it (as he lost so many things), not long after.

Walter and Richard I

Walter de Coutances, who became Archbishop of Rouen, gained his position by being closely tied to the kings of England, first Henry II then Richard I. (The illustration is an estimate of Rouen Cathedral as it may have appeared during Walter's time.)

When Richard first succeeded his father, it was Walter as Archbishop of Rouen (a position he had thanks to Richard's father) who absolved him of his youthful rebellion against Henry. Walter went with Richard on the Third Crusade. He got as far as Sicily before Richard got word that there were problems between Prince John, Richard's younger brother, and William Longchamp, the justiciar who had been left in charge of England. Richard trusted Walter to mediate between the two. Longchamp created further problems, however, that caused Walter to take over his duties, if not formally the title, until 1193.

When Richard was being held captive by Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI, the ransom price was 100,000 pounds of silver.  It was not paid all at once, however, and Henry did the honorable thing by allowing Richard to depart captivity once the first payments had arrived and the rest was pledged. In cases such as this, however, guaranteeing that the rest of the payments would arrive was often done by substituting a valuable person as hostage in place of the primary.

Richard called Walter to Germany to take his place. Walter remained there from 1193 to 1194 when the final payments were made. Afterward, Walter chose to remain in Normandy and not return to England. When Richard wanted the site of Andeli, which was in Walter's hands, Walter refused. The revenues from owning that property were valuable to the archbishop. Richard seized the spot anyway, which seemed discourteous to the man who had been a valuable member of the court and sat in prison on Richard's behalf. Richard needed the site for his war against Philip of France, however. Walter placed Normandy under Interdict, meaning no church services could be performed. This included funeral rites: Roger of Hoveden (who also went on the Third Crusade) commented on "the unburied bodies of the dead lying in the streets and square of the cities of Normandy."

Walter went to Rome to get Pope Celestine III to intercede on his behalf. Richard also sent an embassy. Richard made gifts of other lands to Walter and to the diocese of Rouen, including the port city of Dieppe, sufficient to prompt Celestine himself to remove the Interdict. Walter had little to no contact with Richard after this incident. After Richard's death, he had to deal with King John, and I'll talk about that time period next time.

Walter de Coutances

We saw yesterday how Walter de Coutances did not want to give the site of Andeli to Richard I for a fortress, even though Richard was his liege lord. Let's look at Walter's life and his relationship to Richard.

Walter was ordained on 11 June 1183, so his birth was probably no later than c.1160. He came from Cornwall. Gerald of Wales recorded that Walter's lineage came from Trojans who escaped Troy and settled in Cornwall, but the link to Troy was part of the common myth of Britain's founding. The family was more likely from Normandy, crossing over after 1066. Gerald also refers to Walter being well-educated.

His brother, Roger fitzReinfrid, was a justice under King Henry II, and probably helped Walter gain a position as clerk in the royal chamber. In 1169 he had been given a canonry in Rouen Cathedral, and was made chaplain to Henry the Young King, but after young Henry's rebellion against his father, Walter went back to the elder's court and within a few years was Archdeacon of Oxford.

Walter was sent on diplomatic missions to the continent. The bishop of Lisieux accused Walter of driving him out of his position so that Walter could become a bishop, but there is no evidence that Walter became bishop of Lisieux. Instead, he retuned to England where he was given custody of the abbeys of Wilton and Ramsey, in charge of collecting their revenues for the king.

During this time he was just a valued and trusted courtier, not clergy. He was named Bishop of Lincoln by Henry in May of 1183, but needed to be ordained first, in June, and then in July consecrated as a bishop. He then took part in the election of Baldwin of Forde as Archbishop of Canterbury. As Bishop of Lincoln, he benefitted the schools and was a patron for some of the scholars, but Gerald of Wales claims he was bad for the diocesan finances, running up debt and squandering money.

In November 1184, Rouen needed an archbishop. Rouen had nominated one, but Henry offered them three English candidates, indicating his preference for Walter. Although archbishop was higher status than bishop, Walter was reluctant to accept, because Rouen was financially less stable than Lincoln. The chronicler William of Newburgh recorded that Walter eventually accepted higher status over love of money.

He was still closely tied to Henry's court, and witnessed more of Henry II's royal charters than anyone except Ranulph Glanville. When Henry died and Richard took the throne, he wanted to "clean up his image" because of his earlier rebellion against his father. He sought absolution from Walter and Ranulph. The two archbishops held a ceremony giving Richard absolution, Walter invested him as Duke of Normandy, then followed Richard to England for his coronation.

Richard and Walter remained close. I'll go into their dealings with each other tomorrow.

Richard vs. Philip

Once Richard I was out of captivity and home in England, he forgave his brother John for John's actions while Richard was away on the Third Crusade.

On the continent, however, Philip II of France had taken over part of Normandy that belonged to Richard, the Norman Vexin. The Vexin was a plateau in northern France, the western half of which was in Norman hands, while the eastern was called the French Vexin.

Philip had started while Richard was imprisoned by conquering the Château de Gisors, a key fortress of the Norman dukes on the border between the two Vexins. Richard searched for a new site on which to build a fortress from which he could launch his campaign against Philip. There was an ideal site above the Seine in Andeli. Richard tried to buy a manor there that could be expanded and fortified, but the Archbishop of Rouen did not want to sell the location. When Philip continued invading territories in Normandy, an impatient Richard seized the manor.

The archbishop, Walter de Coutances—although he had been vice-chancellor under Richard's father, and had invested Richard as Duke of Normandy—condemned the action, and placed that part of Normandy under Interdict, declaring no church services could be performed there. Richard wisely made gifts to Walter and his diocese, and Pope Celestine III repealed the interdict. Richard started to build (it took two years total) the magnificent (and exorbitantly expensive) Château Gaillard, referred to in charters by apud Bellum Castrum de Rupe ("at the Fair Castle of the Rock") It is now only a ruin (see illustration).

Richard did not just rely on physical and military means in his revenge on Philip. He created alliances with Baldwin IX of Flanders, with Count Renaud of Boulogne, and with his wife's father, King Sancho VI of Navarre, who attacked Philip from the south.

These moves all aided in driving Philip from the lands he had taken. In 1194 Philip abandoned his former conquests. The Treaty of Louviers, signed in January 1196, agreed that Philip would forsake the lands that he had formerly taken, but would get the Vexin from Richard. It also said that Alys, Philip's sister who had been betrothed to Richard long ago and was now 34 years old, would be allowed to return to France. It also agreed that Andeli would not be fortified, but Richard had already begun the construction of Gaillard and ignored that part of the treaty.

Hostilities, for the time being, were over.

Walter de Coutances had an interesting life, and was tied more closely to Richard than mentioned above, including going to prison for him. I'll explain tomorrow.

Freeing Richard

On his way back from the Third Crusade, King Richard I of England was captured by Leopold V of Austria, who blamed Richard for the murder of Leopold's cousin, Conrad of Montferrat. Richard had also personally offended Leopold by getting rid of Leopold's banner on the walls of Acre, even though Leopold had been with him at the Siege of Acre.

So when Richard's ship was wrecked near Aquileia and Richard had to travel over land to get back home and he passed through Vienna, Leopold captured him around Christmas 1192. The story goes that he was found in an inn, and was trying to pass himself off as the servant turning the spit of a roasting animal, but was identified by either a signet ring, or his men treating him with deference, or some other slip-up.

Interfering with a Crusader was against papal decree, so when word got out, Pope Celestine III excommunicated Leopold.

Word got back to England of Richard's captivity, but no one knew where he was being held. He was given over to Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI's care on 28 March 1193, who imprisoned him at Trifels Castle. Not only was Henry angered at Richard's previous actions, he also had a goal: conquering all of southern Italy. This required military might, and that required money. Holding a king for ransom was one sure way of acquiring funds.

Henry's status as Holy Roman Emperor made Celestine reluctant to excommunicate him. Richard's treatment was initially respectful, but Richard treated Henry with disdain. Henry convened a council to condemn Richard for the capture of Cyprus, the insult to Leopold, the death of Conrad, and making a truce with Saladin. Richard defended his actions, and explained his lack of respect for Henry's imperial title by saying "I am born in a rank which recognizes no superior but God."

Afterward, Richard was kept in chains "so heavy that a horse or ass would have struggled to move under them." Henry demanded a ransom of 100,000 pounds of silver. Richard's mother, Eleanor of Aquitaine, now in her early 70s, took action, riding the country to raise funds and writing the pope about the horrible situation. A tax of 25% of the value of property was decreed against layman and all churches in England. Meanwhile, Richard's brother John and King Philip of France offered Henry 80,000 marks to keep Richard at least until the end of September 1194.

Henry refused their offer. The ransom from England came through, and Richard was freed on 4 February 1194. (The illustration shows Richard kissing the feet of the emperor.) Upon his return to England he forgave John's actions and named John his heir for the time being.

But John had allied himself with Philip of France, and Philip was not to be forgiven. Richard made plans for war with France. I'll tell you more about that tomorrow.

(Note: Much of this post appeared previously on 31 March 2023.)

King Richard's Odyssey

After the Treaty of Jaffa and the official dissolution of the Third Crusade, Richard I of England headed home. He had left his brother John in charge, and reports were not encouraging. Also, his territories on the continent were being harassed by King Philip II of France. So in early October of 1192, he set sail from Jaffa, unaware of the string of misfortunes ahead of him.

His first stroke of bad luck came when storms forced him to stop at Corfu. Just off the northwest coast of Greece, Corfu was fought over and possessed at times by the Venetians, by William II of Sicily, and by the Byzantine emperors. At this time, it was in the possession of Emperor Isaac II Angelos. Isaac was not pleased with Richard, who had annexed Cyprus on his way to the Holy Land because some of the other members of the Crusade had been shipwrecked there and were being held prisoner—including Richard's sister, Joan. Richard had attacked the island to free the prisoners.

To get away from Corfu, Richard had to disguise himself, donning Templar garb and traveling with only a few attendants rather than a large royal-looking retinue. The ship he was on was wrecked near Aquileia at the extreme northernmost point of the Adriatic Sea. His solution at that point was to abandon the sea and travel through Central Europe. His first goal would be his brother-in-law, Henry the Lion.

Henry the Lion (c.1129 - 1195) had been Duke of Saxony and Duke of Bavaria (had been, but that's a different story), but was living comfortably in Saxony. Earlier in his career, he had taken refuge in England and had married Matilda of England, Richard's sister. Matilda had died a few years earlier, but Richard figured he and Henry were on good terms.

Richard never made it to Henry's court. On the way there, near Vienna, he was captured by Leopold V of Austria, who had left the Third Crusade after the Siege of Acre because of his poor treatment by Richard. Imprisoning a Crusader was against the law, but officially, Leopold accused Richard of causing the murder of Leopold's cousin, Conrad of Montferrat. (Conrad had been assassinated in April 1192 right after being chosen King of Jerusalem, against the wishes of Richard, who promoted Guy of Lusignan.)

Richard was imprisoned in Dürnstein castle (shown above). Tomorrow I'll tell you what it took to free him.

The Treaty of Jaffa

After the Battle of Jaffa, with Richard I and the members of the Third Crusade once again in control of the city, a truce was made between Richard and Saladin, signed at the beginning of September 1192. The three-year arrangement officially ended the Third Crusade.

The Crusade had begun because Jerusalem had fallen into Saracen hands. Richard and Saladin had been exchanging letters ever since the Siege of Acre about access to Jerusalem, but nothing was to be concluded until Saladin's defeats by the Crusading army.

The Treaty demanded safe passage for Christians to visit Jerusalem, which would remain under Islamic control. Also, Christians would control the coast from Tyre to Jaffa. The Battle of Hattin had essentially placed the whole of the Kingdom of Jerusalem into Muslim possession, but the Treaty declared that the Tyre-to-Jaffa strip would now be considered the Kingdom. The town of Ascalon would be rebuilt and given to Saladin.

With that, Richard departed for England on 9 October. His brother John and Philip II of France were causing trouble, and he was anxious to get home.

Saladin did not live long after these events. He died 4 March 1193, aged 55 or 56. Prior to his death, he had given all his wealth away to the poor, with only a single piece of gold and 40 pieces of silver left—not even enough to pay for his funeral. He was buried in Damascus, in the garden outside a mosque (pictured above).

Richard lived another seven years, but his trip home almost rivaled that of Odysseus. I'll explain tomorrow.

The Battle for Jaffa

The Battle of Arsuf was a great disappointment for Saladin's Ayubbid forces, and to even the score with the Third Crusade under Richard I Saladin decided he needed to re-take the coastal city of Jaffa.

Richard had made a couple approaches to Jerusalem, but was stymied first by horrible weather and then by disagreements among the leaders. He was also concerned that he would not have enough forces to defend Jerusalem once taken and still keep Jaffa and the cities between under control. Furthermore, he was distracted by reports that his brother, John, and Philip II of France were causing trouble back home, and he would have to go back and deal with them.

In July of 1192, Richard started making preparations to wrap up the efforts to re-take Jerusalem. He left a garrison at Jaffa and prepared to depart in his ships. (The illustration shows him leaving the Holy Land from an 1873 book on British battles.) As soon as he was away from Jaffa, Saladin seized the moment and laid siege to the city. Three days of fighting culminated in the Ayubbids storming the walls and entering. The remaining Europeans held out in the citadel and managed to send a message to Richard, who had gone north.

Richard gathered an army, small as it was, and sailed south to attack Jaffa from the seaward side. Without even waiting for the ship to dock properly, Richard leapt off and waded to the shore. Though he had fewer than 2500 men, the Ayubbids were panicked by the sudden arrival and attack, remembering how Arsuf had gone for them. Saladin's men fled Jaffa, and Saladin could not get them back to re-organize until they had fled several miles.

Saladin heard that Richard was getting reinforcements from Caesarea, and decided it was necessary to re-take Jaffa (again) before Richard's army grew bigger. On the morning of 4 August, the Ayubbids concealed themselves in the fields and forests around Jaffa, but a Genoese soldier who was awake early and outside the city walls heard horses neighing nearby and realized what was about to happen. Richard was informed, and his army prepared for the inevitable.

Richard had the infantry array themselves facing the enemy, crouched down, covering themselves with their shields and jamming their spears in the ground with the points facing outward. Behind them, crossbowmen stood at the ready. The crossbows of the Europeans were far more deadly than the light arrow of the Saracens. Each charge by Saladin's men suffered heavy losses, especially among the unarmored horses.

One group of Saracens managed to outflank the Crusaders and enter Jaffa, where the Genoese left to guard the gate fled to their ships, but Richard himself charged with a troop into the city and led the counter-attack. By nightfall, it was clear to Saladin that he had failed, and he withdrew, retreating to Jerusalem and preparing for an attack by Richard that never came.

Tomorrow we'll discuss the aftermath of negotiations and what came of Saladin.

The Battle of Arsuf Result

Once the Hospitallers broke ranks and attacked Saladin's Ayubbid forces at the Battle of Arsuf, the nearest contingent—Frankish troops—joined them. Despite wanting to keep a tight formation until the Ayubbid forces were completely committed, it was inevitable that Richard I had to commit from defense to offense to ensure success.

Muslim historian Baha al-Din wrote that the swift change from passivity to attack startled Saladin's men, who until that moment had been attacking with arrows and receiving little response. The Frankish infantry parted to let the mounted knights surge through toward the Ayubbids, who had no time to back up efficiently. Baha al-Din, who was present at the battle, claimed "the rout was complete," as the Hospitallers and cavalry took revenge, killing many of the enemy and pursuing them.

Richard stopped the pursuit with pre-planned trumpet blasts after about a mile. He re-ordered his troops. Some who had been in pursuit and rode ahead of the main body had been killed when the Ayubbids turned back, including a commander of a Franco-Flemish unit who was the only noble mentioned having been killed at Arsuf. Once Richard had the troops in formation again, he ordered a second attack, leading it himself. After some fighting, Richard once again ordered his men to regroup, then made a third charge. The Ayubbids, having sustained heavy losses, scattered and gave up the fight.

The Ayubbid loss was a source of embarrassment for Saladin, who had been hailed as a brilliant military strategist. Saladin resumed hit-and-run tactics but was unwilling to commit to a full-scale attack, fearful of losing more men. The Third Crusade succeeded in reaching Jaffa on the coast and taking control. From there he could receive reinforcements of men and materials to re-take Jerusalem. Saladin chose to destroy fortresses in Ascalon, Gaza and other places—knowing he would not be able to supply men to defend them—so that they could not be used by the advancing Crusaders.

That winter (1191-92), while Richard re-fortified Jaffa and prepared to march to Jerusalem, negotiations began between Richard and Saladin with no immediate result. In November 1191, Richard started toward Jerusalem, reaching Beit Nuba, 12 miles from Jerusalem, after Christmas. He might have pushed on, but cold weather with rain and hailstorms prompted him to return to the coast until milder weather arrived

Early 1192 saw skirmishes and negotiations, and then Saladin decided he had to regain his reputation post-Arsuf by re-taking Jaffa. Tomorrow I'll tell you about the Battle of Jaffa.

The Battle of Arsuf

Saladin had been following the forces of the Third Crusade, led by Richard I of England, down the coast of the Mediterranean toward Jaffa. Richard knew the port of Jaffa would be important to hold if he wanted support in re-taking Jerusalem. Saladin knew he needed to force a confrontation, and Arsuf was going to be the best chance to attack the Crusaders.

While the Crusaders were crossing the plain of Arsuf, Richard kept the army in a tight defensive formation against the harassing attacks, waiting for the right moment to counterattack. An account of the Third Crusade, the Itinerarium Regis Ricardi ("Itinerary of King Richard"), states that the Ayubbids outnumbered the Crusaders, 300,000 to 100,000. Those numbers are highly flawed, and realistically Saladin probably had about 25,000 soldiers, mostly mounted.

Crusader forces were estimated to be 9,000 with Richard, 7,000 French troops, and about 4,000 from other sources (local, Danes, Frisians, Genoese, etc.). On the morning of 7 September 1191, it was obvious to Richard that Saladin's forces were hiding in the Wood of Arsuf that lay ahead. He had the military orders—Knights Templar, Knights Hospitaller—at the front and rear. He wanted the ranks to stay in formation as much as possible for defense.

The Ayubbids fired arrows and made small skirmishes against the Crusaders, always pulling back to encourage the Crusaders to break ranks and follow, but the defense held. According to the Itinerarium:

In truth, our people, so few in number, were hemmed in by the multitudes of the Saracens, that they had no means of escape, if they tried; neither did they seem to have valour sufficient to withstand so many foes, nay, they were shut in, like a flock of sheep in the jaws of wolves, with nothing but the sky above, and the enemy all around them.

Unfortunately, the attacks were then made on the rear of the column, forcing the Knights Hospitaller to turn and walk backwards to stay with the main army and deal with the attacks. Saladin himself joined this part of the offense. Finally, a contingent of Knights Hospitaller broke away and charged the Ayubbids. To ensure success, Richard had to allow the army to join them, switching from defense to offense.

A note here on whether the Hospitallers acted against Richard's orders: Richard's own letters that make reference to the battle do not place blame on anyone for breaking ranks. It is possible that he allowed those at the head of each division to take initiative, and trusted the sub-leaders to know what was best in their circumstances.

Whatever the case, pitched battle began, the only time Richard and Saladin actually clashed. Tomorrow we'll see the result.

Saladin and Richard

When Richard I of England arrived to lead the Siege of Acre that had been begun by Guy of Lusignan, things started looking up for the Crusaders. A month of constant attacks on the walls by siege engines motivated the garrison holding Acre to surrender, against the orders of Saladin. Saladin relented, ratifying the surrender, and asked that the Muslim garrison be spared. As ransom for their lives, he offered 200,000 dinars, the release of Christian prisoners held by him, and the return of the True Cross.

Unfortunately, the first installment of dinars did not arrive on schedule, and Richard—never known for being calm and collected—chose to respond by killing the Muslim prisoners, all 2700. They were paraded outside the city walls and executed in sight of Saladin's army. A 12th century biographer of Saladin, Baha ad-Din ibn Shaddad, recorded other reasons for the slaughter that do not place blame on Saladin:

The motives of this massacre are differently told; according to some, the captives were slain by way of reprisal for the death of those Christians whom the Musulmans had slain. Others again say that the king of England, on deciding to attempt the conquest of Ascalon, thought it unwise to leave so many prisoners in the town after his departure. God alone knows what the real reason was.

Saladin executed his 1000 Christian hostages in response. Battle was only to be expected next.

Richard's goal was to re-take Jerusalem. The key to that was controlling the port of Jaffa, further down the Mediterranean coast from Acre. Control of Jaffa meant being able provision his army from his ships that would be docked there. He started marching south.

Richard did not want the army stressed by heat and dehydration—issues that had plagued the Crusaders who were wiped out during the Battle of Hattin. He marched the army slowly, limited by the pace of the foot-soldiers and the baggage train, starting in the relative cool of the early morning and sheltering during the hottest hours of the day. Keeping the sea on one side also meant the Crusaders could not be surrounded, even though Saladin's army was mostly mounted and could move quickly. Richard kept mounted regiments ready for attacks. Discipline was tight. Baha ad-Din complimented them:

The Moslems discharged arrows at them from all sides to annoy them, and force them to charge: but in this they were unsuccessful. These men exercised wonderful self-control; they went on their way without any hurry, whilst their ships followed their line of march along the coast, and in this manner they reached their halting-place.

Saladin soon realized he would not be able to stop Richard's advance unless he committed the army to an all-out attack. The Crusaders were approaching an area where it might not be so easy to keep their tight formation: the Wood of Arsuf. One of the few forested regions of Palestine, this miles-long wood would allow him to hide his army and make a surprise attack.

On 6 September 1191, the Crusaders camped on the plain just north of the wood, and rested. The next day, the only face-to-face battle between Saladin's and Richard's armies would take place. See you tomorrow.

Saladin and the Third Crusade

When the Third Crusade started, it became a problem for Saladin. This was not only because it meant more Western European Christians trying to conquer territory in the Holy Land, but because the leader, Emperor Frederick I (aka Barbarossa), had previously made an alliance with Saladin, and now he had to go back on his word and inform Saladin that they were going to be opponents. (We saw recently how Saladin treated oath-breakers.) The Europeans included leaders Barbarossa, Richard I of England, Philip II of France, Guy of Lusignan, and Conrad of Montferrat. Guy had already begun the Siege of Acre before the Crusaders had arrived. (The illustration is of the Siege from a 13th century history.)

You could say Saladin was the cause of the Third Crusade. After the unsuccessful Second Crusade, the Zengid dynasty controlling Syria fought the Fatimid dynasty of Egypt. Saladin, thanks to his military prowess, brought both the Syrian and Egyptian forces under his control, and used this larger army to recapture territory controlled by Crusaders, capturing Jerusalem from Guy and Sibylla in 1187.

The Crusade had early setbacks. Although Barbarossa was a leading figure in starting the Third Crusade, he was elderly. He died before ever reaching the Holy Land. Demoralized, many of the German soldiers returned home. Once the Siege of Acre was lifted, Philip of France and Barbarossa's successor, Leopold V of Austria, went home. The Siege took two years to lift, and they had had enough of camping in the Holy Land and of Richard's arrogance. Richard refused to accord Leopold the same respect he would have given Barbarossa, and refused to have the Austrian banner flown with those of the other countries involved. (Leopold would have his very ignoble revenge against Richard later.)

This put Richard and Saladin as the two major opponents of the Third Crusade. Their respect for each other as rulers and warriors became a story in itself. I'll tell you more tomorrow.

Guy and Saladin

After the disastrous Battle of Hattin, when Guy of Lusignan overestimated his ability to counter Saladin's encroachment on territory controlled by Crusaders, Guy and a few of his noble companions were brought to Saladin's tent.

Mindful that Guy—however Saladin may have disagreed with his politics or presence in the Near East—was a king, Saladin treated him with respect. Saladin offered Guy a goblet of water, a sign that he was to be treated with hospitality as a guest. Guy tried to pass the goblet to his companion, Raynald of Châtillon, but Saladin stopped him, stating that Raynald was not being offered the same respect as a guest.

In the past, Raynald had provoked Saladin with military skirmishes against the Saracens at a time when the previous king of Jerusalem, Baldwin IV, had made a truce with Saladin. Saladin now declared Raynald an oath-breaker, and would not treat him with respect. (Raynald had acted with Guy as well, at a time when Guy had been made regent on Baldwin's behalf, but Guy was now a king.)

Raynald haughtily replied to Saladin's accusation by saying "kings have always acted thus." Saladin offered him a chance to convert to Islam, but Raynald refused. Saladin took his sword and beheaded Raynald then and there. At the sight of the corpse, Guy went to his knees, but Saladin raised him up, assuring him that "A king does not kill a king." The illustration is by a 17th-century Dutch painter, Jan Lievens, showing the two men, a smiling Saladin and a downcast Guy in golden chains.)

This took place in 1187. Guy was taken prisoner, and his wife, Sibylla, was left to defend Jerusalem. Unfortunately, Jerusalem fell into Saladin's hands on 2 October. Sibylla begged Saladin to release her husband from prison, which he did. The two were rejoined and went to Tyre, the only city still controlled by Christians, thanks to the efforts of Conrad of Montferrat (Sibylla had been married to William of Montferrat, Conrad's older brother, who died years earlier from malaria).

Conrad refused the pair entry, so Guy camped outside the city awhile and later began the Siege of Acre, anticipating Richard the Lionheart's arrival with the Third Crusade. Unfortunately, Queen Sibylla and their two daughters died during an 1190 epidemic; with the queen's passing, Guy's claim to the kingship passed as well. There was another popular claimant for the throne, and Richard Lionheart weighed in as well, but before we get to that, I'd like to give Saladin some proper recognition. He has been a part of the blog for many posts, but we haven't looked at the man himself.

Next time...

Baron Bertran de Born

When Henry the Young King attacked his brother Richard in 1183, he had the support of a lord of Hautefort. Hautefort was surrounded by provinces in the hands of Henry II of England or his sons, and so was affected by their politics.

In 1183, the lord of Hautefort was Baron Bertran de Born, son of Baron Bertran de Born. Bertran junior had two brothers with whom he co-ruled the area, but like the sons of Henry II, the brothers did not necessarily get along. While Bertran supported Henry junior against Richard, Bertran's brother Constantine sided with Richard. For this reason, Bertran drove Constantine out of the castle they shared.

After young Henry's death in June 1183, Richard sought retribution against those who sided with Henry. With the help of Alfonso II of Aragon, Richard returned Hautefort to Constantine. Henry Ii stepped in, however, and gave the castle back to Bertran.

Why would Henry II have a side in this fight? Perhaps because Bertran was also a troubadour. He wrote love songs and political songs. He wrote songs criticizing Richard I and Philip Augustus of France when they delayed setting out for the Third Crusade.

Bertran loved fighting s much as the two Henrys. One of his poems, translated by Ezra Pound, reads

I tell you that I find no such savor in eating butter and sleeping, as when I hear cried "On them!" and from both sides hear horses neighing through their head-guards, and hear shouted "To aid! To aid!" and see the dead with lance truncheons, the pennants still on them, piercing their sides.

As a friend and supporter of Young King Henry—they probably spent time together on the "tournament circuit" (that's Bertran jousting in the illustration from a 13th century manuscript)—Bertran wrote a lament for him that was very moving. It is possibly this that made Henry II choose to return Hautefort to him, since Henry really wanted his son to thrive and succeed him, despite the rebellions.

Bertran (born in the 1140s) married twice, with children from each marriage; when his second wife died in 1196, he retired to a Cistercian abbey. One son, Constantine, joined him there. Another son, Bertran, also became a troubadour.

His legacy is three dozen manuscripts that are certainly his and a handful of others that might be attributable to him. In later years, a rumor started that he egged Young Henry on to rebel, and so his name became connected with creating discord. Dante even puts him in Hell, beheaded.

The abbey he joined, Dalon, had a history of change, and was special to the Plantagenets. I'll tell you about it next time.

Young King Henry, Part 3

When Henry II of England crowned his son, Young King Henry, as a co-ruler, he could not have predicted that the son would attempt to overthrow him rather than wait until the father died on his own. The younger had been given little authority of his own originally, but after the rebellion he was given more autonomy. This gave him the funds he wanted to travel about with William Marshal, attending tournaments and making a name for himself.

For some reason, however, Henry had a falling out with William in 1182. A contemporary historian who knew William wrote a biography of him, in which he suggested that the problem was William having an affair with young Henry's queen, Marguerite of France. Henry's sending his wife back to France in 1183 might support this notion, but a modern historian thinks he did this just to keep her safe because he was starting another family war.

Young Henry demanded the Duchy of Normandy be handed into his care. This would give him a strong revenue stream. His father kept Normandy, but agreed to increase his son's household budget. Frustrated, young Henry demanded his brothers Richard and Geoffrey pay homage to him for their lands (Aquitaine and Brittany, respectively), since he would be their king some day. Richard refused, but Henry made alliances with some of the barons in Aquitaine who did not like Richard. War broke out, with Henry senior joining Richard to defend Aquitaine.

While young Henry was pillaging monasteries for funds to pay mercenaries in June 1183, he came down with dysentery. Seeing that he was dying, he received last rites on 7 June. On his deathbed, he sent word to his father that he wished to be reconciled. Henry senior would not come to see him personally—an overabundance of caution told him it might be a trap—but he sent a ring in token of his forgiveness. Young Henry died on 11 June, clutching the ring.

His body was carried to be entombed at Rouen Cathedral (see illustration). He had run out of money, and his funeral procession had to rely on charity as they traveled. His mother, Eleanor of Aquitaine, lobbied with others to have him declared a saint. The Archdeacon of Wells even wrote a sermon stating that there were miraculous happenings around the funeral escort as it traveled. Nothing came of this.

Despite his patricidal leanings, he was considered a good and charismatic figure. Gerald of Wales called him "admirable for gentleness and liberality... had a commendable suavity... commended for his easy temper... remarkable for his clemency." The Occitan troubadour Bertran de Born called him "the best king who ever took up a shield." Bertran even joined Henry in the war against Richard. What could a troubadour bring to the fray? Well, he was also a baron, and we will learn more about him next time.

Marriage Alliances

It was expected that kings and other nobles would try to gain alliances (and therefore security) by marrying their sons and daughters to important people in other realms, and King Henry II of England was no exception. He had gained Aquitaine and Poitou on the continent by marriage to Eleanor, and was already Duke of Normandy.

Not all marriage plans come to fruition, however, for one reason or another.

Henry's first plan was to marry his eldest legitimate son, Henry the Young King, to Marguerite the daughter of Louis VII of France. Ideally, their offspring would rule both France and England. They were married in 1172, when Henry was only 17 and Marguerite 14 (it had been negotiated when he was only five). Young Henry died in 1183 from dysentery while rebelling against his father. His one child, a son named William, did not survive. The attempt to bring several territories together failed.

Another son, Richard "Lionheart," was betrothed to another daughter of Louis, Alys, in 1169. But the rumor became that Alys, being fostered in the care of Henry II, became his mistress. As the sister of the new king of France, Philip II, Richard was reluctant to renounce the betrothal. When Henry died in 1189 and Richard was crowned, he broke off the intended marriage in 1190 while speaking with Philip on the Third Crusade. A year later Richard married Berengaria of Navarre.

Alys was offered by Philip to Prince John, but Eleanor stopped it. Alys went on to marry William IV Talvas, Count of Ponthieu, in 1195; she was 35, he was 16.

Another son, Geoffrey, was married to Constance of Brittany, daughter of Conan IV, Duke of Brittany, in order to quell problems of rebellion there.

While Henry II was figuring out how his kingdom would be divided among his sons, he had nothing left for the youngest son, John. John's nickname of "Lackland" reflects this. Looking far afield for some way to use his youngest, he made an arrangement to marry John to Alice, the daughter of Humbert III of Savoy. John was promised to inherit from his father-in-law Savoy, Piedmont, Maurienne, and other possessions in northern Italy. Alice of Maurienne traveled to England to become a ward of Henry II, but she died before the wedding could take place. John later married twice, both women named Isabella; "local" women whose fathers were important and wanted their grandchildren to rule England.

Political marriages don't always work out as planned.

I've used Henry the Young King mostly as a footnote, but he was much written about while he lived, and accomplished more than being crowned prematurely and dying while rebelling unsuccessfully against his father. I want to dive into his life and motives a little more...next time.