Theophanu and Adelaide

Odilo of Cluny (c.962 - 1049) wrote a life of Holy Roman Empress Adelaide of Italy (to whom he was supposedly related). It is from Odilo that we learn Adelaide was very happy when "that Greek woman died."

The "Greek woman" was Theophanu, who in 972 married Adelaide's son, Otto II, who became Holy Roman Emperor a year later when his father and Adelaide's husband, Otto I, died.

Part of the issue between mother-in-law and daughter-in-law may have been simply that Adelaide, the first woman to be crowned Holy Roman Empress, who was deeply involved in the empire's administration, was unwilling to relinquish her authority and step away during her son's reign. She may also have been (this is not unlikely) unhappy with a foreigner marrying her son (there was some hostility between the East and West of the Roman Empire).

There were more overt reasons, however. In 972, Adelaide's niece married a man known as Henry the Quarrelsome, who was the son of Otto I's younger brother Henry I of Bavaria. Henry wanted to oust Otto II in 974. Otto imprisoned Henry in 976, but when Otto II died in 983 Henry was released and tried to take the throne from the successor, Otto III. Henry kidnapped the three-year-old Otto III, but he lost the support of the German nobility and was forced to submit to the authority of Empress Theophanu. Adelaide's early friendly association with Henry made Theophanu unhappy.

Otto II had even felt it necessary to exile Adelaide from court in 978 because of her interference with his administration, spending her time between Pavia and with her brother Conrad I, King of Burgundy, in Arles. Conrad helped reconcile mother and son.

Peter Damian (c.1007 - 1072), although writing later, claimed that Theophanu had an affair with John Philagathos (c.945 - c.1001), a Greek monk who was Theophanu's chaplain and Otto's chancellor 980-982 and briefly became Antipope John XVI.

When Otto II died, Otto III was only three, so Theophanu was regent, but Adelaide would have had a difficult time not being involved in government with her son gone. Both women held the title Empress. Adelaide had dowry lands and wanted to dispose of those rents/taxes as she saw fit, but Theophanu now (as regent for the young Emperor Otto III), had the authority to direct many of those finances. Theophanu pre-deceased Adelaide, who then became regent for Otto III. Let's see how that went, next time.

Adelaide of Italy

Yesterday I mentioned the need to explain Adelaide of Italy to understand how she affected the marriage of her son.

Adelaide was born to King Rudolph II of Upper Burgundy (now Switzerland) and Bertha of Swabia. Her parents became king and queen of (northern) Italy after the death of Berengar I. Later, after her father's death, Adelaide was married to the new King of Italy, Lothair II. She was 15 years old. They had a daughter, Emma of Italy, who married King Lothair of France.

After Lothair died, his successor Berengar II tried to force a marriage between Adelaide and Berengar's son, Adalbert. Adelaide refused and fled, but was caught and imprisoned for four months. She managed to escape and (we believe) found while in hiding by a priest who took her to a safe refuge. From there she wrote to Otto I asking for protection, for which he had an idea. They met and married on 23 September 951. (See the two at Meissen Cathedral in the illustration.)

Otto had been married before, but when his son from that wife, Liudolf Duke of Swabia, led a revolt  that was quelled, Otto dispossessed Liudolf of his title. This was a good sign for any future children of Otto's and Adelaide's. They had a couple sons who died while young, but they continued producing children, including Otto II.

Otto I was crowned Holy Roman Emperor on 2 February 962 by Pope John XII, whom Otto (accompanied by Adelaide) had come to Rome with an army to protect against John's enemies. In a first for the Holy Roman Empire, John crowned Adelaide as Holy Roman Empress.

Adelaide's influence in the Empire was significant. She was named alongside Otto in papal bulls. She was involved in 75 charters. She received requests for help and protection separate from requests to her husband. Her daughter Emma wrote, asking for help against enemies, as did future Pope Sylvester II, Gerbert of Aurillac.

After a later expedition to Rome to support Pope John XIII, Adelaide remained in Rome with her son Otto for six years. In 967, Otto II was crowned co-emperor, and in April 972 Otto married Theophanu, daughter of a former Byzantine Emperor. When Otto I died in 973 and Otto II became Holy Roman Emperor in his own right, Adelaide did not relinquish any of the authority she was accustomed to wield, which interfered with her son's rule and clashed with her daughter-in-law.

Tomorrow we'll go back to Theophanu and see how things were between her and her mother-in-law.

Otto and Theophanu

Holy Roman Emperor Otto I was looking for a suitable bride for his son, Otto, and thought the daughter of a Byzantine Emperor was a good choice. The Byzantine Emperor, however, saw themselves as the emperors of the Roman Empire, West as well as East, and so disliked Otto styling himself as Holy Roman Emperor and Pope John XIII referring to him as "Emperor of the Greeks." This caused the breakdown of initial attempts to arrange a marriage with Anna Porphyrogeneta, daughter of former Emperor Romanus II, as recorded by Liudprand of Cremona.

There was more than one attempt to get a Byzantine bride for young Otto. The later ruler, Emperor John I Tzimiskes, had been treated a little differently. He had been referred to as Roman Emperor and so was not insulted. A round of negotiations was led by Archbishop Gero of Cologne. (Liudprand might have been involved, since he spoke and wrote Greek and was familiar with Constantinople, but his previous encounter might have made him a detriment to diplomacy.)

John chose his niece Theophanu, who was 14. There were some concerns in the West. For one, she was not "Porphyrogeneta," which means "born to the purple," so she was less royal than Anna. Also, she was even "less royal" because she was the emperor's niece through his brother-in-law by marriage and not actually a member of there powerful Macedonian dynasty.

John I Tzimiskes had come to power by overthrowing Nicephorus II Phocas, and the Ottonians were concerned that John's status as a usurper would invalidate Theophanu's suitability and standing as a link to the Byzantine Empire. Otto was advised to send her back to Constantinople, but for whatever reason he was persuaded otherwise. They were wed by Pope John XIII on 14 April 972. (You can actually see the marriage charter here.) She was also crowned Holy Roman Empress on the same day. The illustration is of Christ blessing the young couple.

One historian claims that Otto I, her father-in-law, was very supportive until his death a year later. Theophanu was later very involved in the running of the empire: she is mentioned in one quarter of the imperial documents. Although she was from a different culture, which made many of Otto's subjects wary of her, the only serious difficulty was with her mother-in-law, Adelaide of Italy. Before we go on to see what kind of ruler Theophanu was, let's take a look at Adelaide starting tomorrow.

Liudprand in Constantinople

When Liudprand of Cremona went to Constantinople a second time, it was specifically to arrange a marriage between the son of Holy Roman Emperor Otto I and Anna Porphyrogeneta, daughter of former Emperor Romanus II.

The atmosphere in Constantinople was not as welcoming as his first visit there, and he described it in a letter to Otto:

On the day before the Nones of June (June 4) we came to Constantinople, and there, as a mark of disrespect to yourselves, being shamefully received, we were harshly and shamefully treated. We were shut up in a palace large enough, indeed, but uncovered, neither keeping out the cold nor warding off the heat. Armed soldiers were made to stand guard who were to prevent all of my companions from going out and all others from coming in. This dwelling, into which we alone who were shut up could pass, was so far removed from the palace that our breath was taken away when we walked there - we did not ride. To add to our calamity the Greek wine, on account of being mixed with pitch, resin, and plaster was to us undrinkable - The house itself was without water, nor could we even for money buy water to still our thirst. To this great torment was added another torment - our warden namely, who cared for our daily support. If one were to look for his like, not earth. but perhaps hell, would furnish it; for he, like an inundating torrent, poured forth on us whatever calamity, whatever plunder, whatever expense, whatever torment, whatever misery he could invent.- Nor among a hundred and twenty days did a single one pass without bringing us groaning and grief. [source]

Why such a different reception?

The current Byzantine Emperor, Nicephorus Phocas, still lay claim to Benevento and Capua in Italy, and Byzantine forces had clashed recently with Otto's forces. Nicephorus, as the Eastern Emperor, also objected to Otto calling himself Holy Roman Emperor. Nicephorus was also annoyed that, in a letter from Pope John XIII, Nicephorus had been called "Emperor of the Greeks," when technically he was Emperor over the entirety of the Roman Empire, including the western parts.

The "insult" went both ways. Liudprand was brought before the emperor's brother, who (he says in the letter to Otto):

...called you not emperor, which is Basileus in his tongue, but, to insult you, Rex, which is king in ours. And when I told him that the thing signified was the same although the terms used to signify it, were different, he said that I had come not to make peace but to excite discord;

Liudprand was not the most diplomatic of diplomats. He relates how, after he purchased purple cloth, and it was confiscated because (they told him) it was reserved for royals because it is unique, he replied:

"Such a garment can hardly be called unique," I answered, "when with us the street-walkers and conjurers wear them."

A marriage between Otto II and Anna never took place. Liudprand might have gone to Constantinople one more time after that, during the negotiation that led to Otto getting a Byzantine bride, but there is no account of it.

A new bishop of Cremona was installed in 973, so Liudprand must have died by then. But we have no other stories from him except his histories. How Otto got his Byzantine bride, however, will come next. See you tomorrow.

The Ottonians

The Ottonians, the Ottonian dynasty, the Ottonian Period in Germany—all these refer to the same topic: a Saxon dynasty of German monarchs (three of whom were named, natürlich, "Otto") that lasted from 919 until 1024CE.

Its founder was not named Otto, however (although his father was); that was Henry the Fowler (876 - 936), son of Otto the Illustrious. He was named primus inter pares (Latin: "first among equals") by the German dukes of Bavaria, Swabia, and Lotharingia during the Hungarian invasions of East Francia, and named Rex Francorum ("King of the Franks") in 919. He was victorious over the Hungarians and amassed sufficient power to be uncontested when he passed his title onto his son, Otto I (912 - 973).

Also known as Otto the Great, one of the chief historical events connected to him is the restoration of the Holy Roman Empire (which, it should be noted, was by any standard definitions neither "holy" nor "Roman" nor an "empire"). Sure, the administrative structure needed to manage the large area (shown in the illustration) was inherited from the Carolingians and Charlemagne, and they got it from the Romans, but it was nowhere near what the Roman Empire had been.

Pope John XXII, however, wanted Otto's help in controlling Rome and the Lombards. Otto was a good choice: he was geographically close to Rome, he had defeated the pagan Magyars in 955, making him look like a hero for Christianity, and he was (in some ways) the successor of a previous Frankish king, Charlemagne, who had been made Holy Roman Emperor in Christmas Day in 800. Otto, whose wife was the Italian Adelaide of Burgundy (931 - 999). stepped in for the pope and conquered the Kingdom of Italy in 961. He was crowned Holy Roman Emperor on 2 February 962.

The "re-creation" of the empire and its expansion to much of central and Southern Europe sparked a bit of a cultural resurgence, the Ottonian Renaissance. This continued under Otto the Great's son, Otto II, partially because of his marriage to Theophanu, the niece of Byzantine emperor John I Tzimiskes. This helped create an influx of Byzantine art into Europe.

Otto II died after only 10 years, aged 28. His son, Otto III, was only 3 years old; his regents were his mother Theophanu, his grandmother Adelaide, and Henry II ("the Quarrelsome"), Duke of Bavaria. When he came of age, among other things he installed his confidants as popes: Pope Gregory V and the science-minded Gerbert of Aurillac, Pope Sylvester II.

When Otto III  died young (aged 21 years), he was succeeded by Henry II, a son of his regent Duke Henry. Henry was crowned emperor by Pope Benedict VIII in 1014. He founded numerous dioceses and intertwined secular and religious administrative power. When he died childless in 1024, the Ottonian dynasty ended. The crown went to Conrad II, a great-grandson of a daughter of Otto I, starting the Salian dynasty.

Before we can move to other topics, however, I want to look more at the results of the Ottonian Renaissance. See you tomorrow.

He Who Would Be Santa

15th century woodcut of Nicholas

In the introduction to Arian Christianity I mentioned how discussion at the Council of Nicaea in 325 became so heated that Bishop Nicholas of Myra slapped Arius' face. Much of what we think we know about Nicholas is difficult to substantiate, but this has not stopped historians from talking about him. In fact, it is the least-documented information we have that has developed his reputation the most.

Nicholas (c.270-6 December 343) was born at Patara, in Asia Minor. As a young man he made a pilgrimage to Egypt and Palestine; upon his return he was made Bishop of Myra, not far from his city of birth. During the reign of the Emperor Diocletian, Nicholas was imprisoned, but freed once the Christian Emperor Constantine came to power.

He attended the first ecumenical council of the new Catholic Church in 325, which was called by Constantine in order to determine the (in)validity of Arianism (see the link above). Nicholas is counted among the numerous men who assembled there, and (as mentioned) became passionate about the debate.

Well, that's the story anyway. There are some lists of participants on which his name is not found, casting doubt on his presence at Nicaea. But his importance to legend is unquestioned. His popularity as a saint in Greece and Russia began early. Emperor Justinian I (483-565) built a church to Nicholas at Constantinople. He was revered in Germany during the reign of Emperor Otto II (955-983).

And you know you're an important person when they dig up your body in order to keep it safe (as monks had done in England with St. Cuthbert). In 1071 the Turks took control of most of Asia Minor. Among other things, this meant losing control of the burial site of Nicholas. Byzantium regained control under Emperor Alexios I Comnenus, but sailors from Bari in southern Italy took it upon themselves to save the saint's bones. They brought the relics to Bari in 1087, where they have remained. (Actually, they brought the major bones, leaving fragments. Venetian sailors during the First Crusade brought the remainder to Venice where they were put in a church. Scientific investigation in the 1990s proved that the bones in Bari and Venice belong to the same man.)

Traditional pawnbroker sign

The chief story of his giving nature—the story that eventually gave rise to the legend of Santa Claus—is about a man with three daughters for whom he did not have enough money for dowries. Without a dowry, marriage was unlikely, and the fear was that they would wind up as prostitutes in order to support themselves. Nicholas passed by on three consecutive nights and each night threw a bag of gold in the window, saving the future of the daughters. Because of this he has been made the patron saint of (besides children and sailors, etc.) pawnbrokers; some think the traditional image of three golden balls for a pawnbroker shop is because of the three bags of gold. A 15th century woodcut now in the British Museum (see image above) shows Nicholas laying three gold balls instead of bags into the girls' bed. (An alternate theory has the three balls connected to the Medici family heraldry.)

His feast day is today, December 6. In some countries, children put their shoes outside their doors on the evening of the 5th, and on the morning of the 6th find chocolate, coins, or trinkets.