The Battle of Arsuf Result

Once the Hospitallers broke ranks and attacked Saladin's Ayubbid forces at the Battle of Arsuf, the nearest contingent—Frankish troops—joined them. Despite wanting to keep a tight formation until the Ayubbid forces were completely committed, it was inevitable that Richard I had to commit from defense to offense to ensure success.

Muslim historian Baha al-Din wrote that the swift change from passivity to attack startled Saladin's men, who until that moment had been attacking with arrows and receiving little response. The Frankish infantry parted to let the mounted knights surge through toward the Ayubbids, who had no time to back up efficiently. Baha al-Din, who was present at the battle, claimed "the rout was complete," as the Hospitallers and cavalry took revenge, killing many of the enemy and pursuing them.

Richard stopped the pursuit with pre-planned trumpet blasts after about a mile. He re-ordered his troops. Some who had been in pursuit and rode ahead of the main body had been killed when the Ayubbids turned back, including a commander of a Franco-Flemish unit who was the only noble mentioned having been killed at Arsuf. Once Richard had the troops in formation again, he ordered a second attack, leading it himself. After some fighting, Richard once again ordered his men to regroup, then made a third charge. The Ayubbids, having sustained heavy losses, scattered and gave up the fight.

The Ayubbid loss was a source of embarrassment for Saladin, who had been hailed as a brilliant military strategist. Saladin resumed hit-and-run tactics but was unwilling to commit to a full-scale attack, fearful of losing more men. The Third Crusade succeeded in reaching Jaffa on the coast and taking control. From there he could receive reinforcements of men and materials to re-take Jerusalem. Saladin chose to destroy fortresses in Ascalon, Gaza and other places—knowing he would not be able to supply men to defend them—so that they could not be used by the advancing Crusaders.

That winter (1191-92), while Richard re-fortified Jaffa and prepared to march to Jerusalem, negotiations began between Richard and Saladin with no immediate result. In November 1191, Richard started toward Jerusalem, reaching Beit Nuba, 12 miles from Jerusalem, after Christmas. He might have pushed on, but cold weather with rain and hailstorms prompted him to return to the coast until milder weather arrived

Early 1192 saw skirmishes and negotiations, and then Saladin decided he had to regain his reputation post-Arsuf by re-taking Jaffa. Tomorrow I'll tell you about the Battle of Jaffa.

The Battle of Arsuf

Saladin had been following the forces of the Third Crusade, led by Richard I of England, down the coast of the Mediterranean toward Jaffa. Richard knew the port of Jaffa would be important to hold if he wanted support in re-taking Jerusalem. Saladin knew he needed to force a confrontation, and Arsuf was going to be the best chance to attack the Crusaders.

While the Crusaders were crossing the plain of Arsuf, Richard kept the army in a tight defensive formation against the harassing attacks, waiting for the right moment to counterattack. An account of the Third Crusade, the Itinerarium Regis Ricardi ("Itinerary of King Richard"), states that the Ayubbids outnumbered the Crusaders, 300,000 to 100,000. Those numbers are highly flawed, and realistically Saladin probably had about 25,000 soldiers, mostly mounted.

Crusader forces were estimated to be 9,000 with Richard, 7,000 French troops, and about 4,000 from other sources (local, Danes, Frisians, Genoese, etc.). On the morning of 7 September 1191, it was obvious to Richard that Saladin's forces were hiding in the Wood of Arsuf that lay ahead. He had the military orders—Knights Templar, Knights Hospitaller—at the front and rear. He wanted the ranks to stay in formation as much as possible for defense.

The Ayubbids fired arrows and made small skirmishes against the Crusaders, always pulling back to encourage the Crusaders to break ranks and follow, but the defense held. According to the Itinerarium:

In truth, our people, so few in number, were hemmed in by the multitudes of the Saracens, that they had no means of escape, if they tried; neither did they seem to have valour sufficient to withstand so many foes, nay, they were shut in, like a flock of sheep in the jaws of wolves, with nothing but the sky above, and the enemy all around them.

Unfortunately, the attacks were then made on the rear of the column, forcing the Knights Hospitaller to turn and walk backwards to stay with the main army and deal with the attacks. Saladin himself joined this part of the offense. Finally, a contingent of Knights Hospitaller broke away and charged the Ayubbids. To ensure success, Richard had to allow the army to join them, switching from defense to offense.

A note here on whether the Hospitallers acted against Richard's orders: Richard's own letters that make reference to the battle do not place blame on anyone for breaking ranks. It is possible that he allowed those at the head of each division to take initiative, and trusted the sub-leaders to know what was best in their circumstances.

Whatever the case, pitched battle began, the only time Richard and Saladin actually clashed. Tomorrow we'll see the result.

Hulagu Khan

Hulagu Khan was a grandson of Genghis Khan (Genghis had 43 grandchildren—known ones, that is, because he slept with a lot of women in his lifetime, and his descendants are too numerous to estimate). He was born about 1217CE to Tolui and Sorghaghtani Beki; the only item known about his childhood is an anecdote that he met his grandfather Genghis once when Hulagu was seven years old.

When Sorghaghtani died, his father married Dokuz Khatun, an Assyrian Christian and granddaughter of Ghengis Khan's blood-brother Toghrul. When Tolui died, Dokuz was given to Hulagu to marry. Her Christian background would be important later.

When Hulagu's brother Möngke became the Great Khan in 1251, Hulagu was given the charge of making sure southwest Asia was either firmly in Mongol control or destroyed. He was told to be kind to those who submitted and ruthless to those who did not. As it turned out, he was just the person for the job.

The massive army he marched out with had been assembled slowly over two years, conscripting 10-20% of the empire's fighting men. He had series of successful engagements: Transoxiana,* the Lurs of southern Iran, the Ismailis (Assassins) of Alamut, and the destruction of Baghdad. Because the Abbasid caliph of Baghdad refused to submit, the vengeance of Hulagu's army was overwhelming; however, Dokuz (who accompanied her husband on his campaigns) pleaded successfully to spare the Christian population.

Hulagu then conquered the Ayubbid dynasty in Muslim Syria, killing their last king. The remaining center of Islamic power was in the Mamluk capital of Cairo. Hulagu sent word to Cairo to submit or be destroyed like Baghdad. Rather than proceed to Cairo, however, Hulagu needed to consider the army. Syria did not have the resources to feed his enormous army, so he withdrew to Azerbaijan, leaving a force of 10,000.

He personally left for Mongolia: his brother, Möngke, had died, and there was a dispute over who should take over the empire. The fight was between the youngest brother, Ariq Böke (10 years younger than Hulagu), and a brother two years older than Hulagu named Kublai.

With the succession settled and Kublai in charge, Hulagu returned to his so-far-successful westward campaign. Here's where it gets tricky: tomorrow I hope to explain how, in this next stage, the destruction of the Islamic capital of Baghdad set in motion Hulagu's defeat, and a big problem for the Mongolian Empire.

*Lower Central Asia, what is now eastern Uzbekistan, western Tajikistan, southern Kazakhstan, southern Kyrgyzstan, and parts of Turkmenistan.