The Civil War

In the lead up to the Toluid Civil War, Kublai Khan had the upper hand. He controlled most of the supply lines that would have helped his younger brother, Ariq Böke, and had resources coming from China.

One of Kublai's first successes was against an ally of Ariq in northwestern China, from whom he captured food supplies intended for Ariq's army. He also drove Ariq supporters out of their homes in several towns. Ariq's attempts to attack Kublai's territory in southwestern China was turned away by Kublai's Chinese allies, whom he rewarded handsomely with gifts of silk and silver and with administrative positions.

Ariq's allies abandoned him, except for one: Alghu of the Chagatai Khanate (Chagatai was a son of Genghis Khan; Alghu was a grandson of Chagatai). Ariq named Alghu head of the Chagatai Khanate after the previous khan died, and the Chagatai Khanate became an important source of supplies for Ariq's army.

In 1261, Ariq and Kublai's armies met in battle, during which Ariq called for a retreat. Ten days later he returned and engaged a small contingent of Kublai's army, but could not achieve victory. By this time, Kublai's army had been advancing and occupying much of Mongolia. Ariq asked for help from Alghu, but Alghu saw that the victor of the civil war was likely to be Kublai, and changed allegiance.

Back in southern China, a rebellion took place that required Kublai to take his main force to quell it. With the immediate threat of Kublai gone, Ariq chose to attack his once-ally, Alghu. Ariq's attack on the Chagatai Khanate disillusioned several of his supporters. Ürüng, son of the previous Grand Khan Möngke, had been an ally, but he left Ariq and pledged his loyalty to Kublai instead.

Ariq, running out of allies, and lacking resources to feed and arm an army, turned himself over to Kublai in 1264 at Shangdu (also known as Xanadu), ending four years of hostility. Ariq was imprisoned and ignored by Kublai for an entire year.

Kublai purged the government of officials who were loyal to Ariq, executing some. He called a kurultai to decide what Ariq's fate should be and to officially make himself Grand Khan. Of the four Khanates of Genghis Khan's four sons, none of the others attended this kurultai called by the Toluid Khanate. Two of the khanates were fighting each other, and the Ögedei Khanate was still angry that the Grand Khan position had been maneuvered away from them years earlier.

Kublai would have to deal with other internal threats from those who did not fully accept his role as Grand Khan. Although the four khanates would have ties of trade and culture, they no longer united for military purposes. A united Mongolian Empire was no longer a possible future.

Ariq Böke died of unknown causes while still in prison, in 1266.

Kublai saw soon that his influence on the other khanates was limited, though not non-existent. Tomorrow we'll see him turn to making China his empire.

The Toluid Civil War

When Kublai found out that his younger brother Ariq Böke was making plans to become Grand Khan while Kublai was off subduing the Song Dynasty in China, he was not pleased. Normally, the kurultai that met to decide the next ruler was attended by prominent members of the families of the sons of Genghis Khan (both Kublai and Ariq—pictured here—were grandsons of Genghis through Genghis' youngest son, Tolui).

I suppose the problem was that both boys' uncle Möngke, who had been Grand Khan until his death in 1259, did not nominate a successor. Kublai called a kurultai at Kaiping in China—the first time a kurultai to choose a Grand Khan was called outside of Mongol territory. At it, Kublai was elected Grand Khan. Ariq, who had been making alliances with powerful Mongol chiefs, called a kurultai in the Mongol capital Karakoram that elected him Grand Khan.

Their brother Hulagu wanted to support Kublai, but was detained fighting Mamluks and then dealing with hostility from Berke, current ruler of the Golden Horde (begun by all three brothers' uncle, Batu Khan).

Kublai had Chinese resources behind him. He had been an able administrator, and he promised the Chinese that he could be a benevolent ruler who united Chinese, Mongols, and Koreans. He made grand promises to his potential supporters: lower taxes, rule based on Chinese precedent, and that his era would be one of Zhongtong, "moderate rule."

The Song people in southern China offered no help, but northern China supported him. He had plenty of resources and managed to control three of the four supply lines to Ariq in the capital of Karakoram. Kublai advanced on Karakoram, and Ariq retreated in the only logical direction he had available to him, the way toward the Yenesei River valley in the northwest. Winter set in, forcing Ariq and Kublai to camp and wait for spring.

The Song people of southern China chose this time to rebel, crossing the agreed-upon border of the Yangtze River and recovering some of the territory that Kublai had recently taken. Kublai sent a Chinese diplomat to try to settle the matter, but the diplomat was imprisoned by the Song.

While waiting through the cold season, Kublai continued to gather supplies and recruit soldiers, preparing for civil war. Tomorrow we'll see the results of the fighting.

Mother of Four Khans

The youngest son of Geghis Khan, Tolui, married a Christian woman named Sorghaghtani Beki. They had similarly noble backgrounds. Sorghaghtani was a Keraite princess. Keraites were one of the five dominant Turco-Mongol confederations, and they were Eastern (Assyrian) Christians.

Sorghaghtani's uncle was the very powerful Keraite leader Toghrul, and around 1203 was more powerful than Genghis (when he was still going by his original name, Temujin). Temujin proposed a marriage between their tribes. Toghrul rejected this, and even tried to kill Temujin. Not long after ,Toghrul was killed. Toghrul's brother, Jakha (Sorghaghtani's father), was on better terms with Temujin, and offered his daughters to Temujin. Temujin gave the teenage Sorghaghtani to his teenaged youngest, Tolui. (Not long after, the Keraites revolted against Temujin, and Jakha was killed.)

Because Mongol men were often away on military campaigns, Mongol wives had to manage the home and had more rights and power than women in some other cultures. Sorghaghtani could not read or write herself, but she raised her children to learn the languages of the regions they were likely to rule. She also respected other religions, and she raised her sons to be the same. The policy of the Mongol Empire was that the state was more important than religion, and could tolerate any religion that did not interfere with political matters. Sorghaghtani made donations to both Christians and Muslims.

Tolui died in 1232 under mysterious circumstances. Tolui's older brother, Ögedei Khan (he had succeeded Genghis in 1229), gave her authority to handle Tolui's estates (eastern Mongolia and parts of Iran and northern China), and put her in charge of his empire's administration. Mongol widows often re-married into the same family (keeping inheritance attached), and Ögedei suggested that she marry his son Güyük. She refused, claiming that her sons needed her.

Her sons were Möngke Khan, Kublai Khan, Hulagu Khan, and Ariq Böke.

The next Khan would not be so hospitable. We'll find out what happened afterward tomorrow.