Amalric Ascends

Baldwin III, King of Jerusalem, contracted dysentery in 1162 after taking some pills from a Syriac physician. He was only 33 years old, and healthy prior to the pills, so poison was suspected, but no investigation turned up any sign of wrongdoing. Trying to get home from Antioch, he got as far as Beirut. He summoned his nobles to him, announcing his younger brother, Amalric, as his heir. He died on 10 February 1163.

Amalric was 27, and therefore unlike Baldwin at his ascension needed no regent (besides, his mother Queen Melisende had died on 11 September 1161) and was ready to rule. Unfortunately, the High Court refused to recognize him as king until he got rid of his wife, Agnes of Courtenay, for reasons on which historians cannot agree.

Amalric and Agnes already had children, and the need for an heir was a concern. Amalric gained papal agreement from Pope Alexander III that his children would be seen as legitimate even if his marriage was annulled. The marriage was annulled, presumably on the grounds of consanguinity.

Eight days after Baldwin's death, he was interred in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. On the same day in the same place, Amalric was crowned (see illustration) by the patriarch, Amalric of Nesle, the chief spokesman who told him he had to give up Agnes. (Although king and patriarch often worked together, this king excluded this patriarch from his councils, possibly because of the Agnes decision.)

One of Amalric's first pieces of legislation was the Assise sur la ligece ("Assize on liege-homage"). This declared all lords to be vassals of the king. This change allowed the vassals of Amalric's vassals to appeal directly to the king if they felt their overlords were not being fair or trustworthy. It disallowed the seizing of fiefs by lords, but allowed the king to confiscate fiefs from anyone.

Amalric's chief military goal during his reign was to conquer Egypt. This was not just a "land grab." The Crusaders were constantly threatened by Muslim neighbors, chief of whom was Nur ad-Din, Emir of Aleppo since 1146. Nur ad-Din also saw the strategic importance of Egypt: if he could control it, he would have the Crusader states surrounded.

The next decade saw these two men working against each other over Egypt. So let's learn more about Nur ad-Din next time.

Amalric

Queen Melisende and Fulk of Anjou had a second son, Amalric, born in 1136. When his grandfather, King Baldwin II of Jerusalem, was on his deathbed in 1131, he conferred the kingdom on Melisende, Fulk, and the elder son, Baldwin III. Fulk tried to cut Melisende out of authority, but she had enough regard from the local nobles that he had to offer peace and cooperation. It is possible that she, in turn, accepted reconciliation because she only had one son, whereas Fulk had adult children from an earlier marriage and might have tried to put them in the line of succession.

Amalric is seen as the result of that reconciliation, a "spare" to follow the "heir."

Fulk died in 1143, and Melisende became co-ruler with her son, the 15-year-old Baldwin. Years later, when she and Baldwin continued to be at odds, she named the 15-year-old Amalric the Count of Jaffa, giving him power and making him beholden to her.

A year later, in 1152, Baldwin took the bold move of besieging his mother and her most loyal advisors in the Tower of David. Baldwin was successful. He managed to depose his mother and return Jaffa to Baldwin's own control. Two years later, in 1154, Baldwin gave his younger brother Jaffa and Ascalon.

Melisende was retired to Nablus, 30 miles  north of Jerusalem: sufficient territory to give her an income, but no fortifications that she could hide behind if she tried to stir up trouble for Baldwin.

Amalric married Agnes of Courtenay in 1157, the daughter of Melisende's second cousin. William of Tyre wrote that the Patriarch of Jerusalem, Fulcher of Angoulême, objected because the couple were too closely related. A later chronicle of the lineages of the Crusader families states that the marriage was inappropriate in another way: Agnes, recently widowed, had been about to marry another, Hugh of Ibelin, but Amalric married her instead. A more recent historian claims Agnes was already married to Hugh, and Amalric kidnapped her to marry her, making them bigamous.

Amalric, like Baldwin, kept good relations with the Byzantine Empire, especially through Manuel I Comnenos (Baldwin was married to Manuel's niece, Theodora). They had no children, and so when Baldwin was nearing death, he named Amalric as his heir.

Tomorrow I want to take a look at Agnes of Courtenay, her life, her marriage to Amalric, and what happened when Amalric wanted to be King of Jerusalem. It didn't work out in Agnes' favor.

Baldwin vs. Melisende

The young King Baldwin III of Jerusalem really wanted to be seen as a military commander. To do this, he would have to take steps to overcome people's (and his mother's) memories of his previous lack of success with the Second Crusade and in Bosra.

A year after the Second Crusade debacle over Damascus he had his chance. The Prince of Antioch, Raymond of Poitiers, and others were killed in the Battle of Inab against Nur al-Din and Unur of Damascus. Antioch was pillaged.

In the past, Baldwin's father and grandfather had each been in a position to assume the regency of Antioch, and Baldwin took up the mantle. He marched his troops north to lay siege to Harim, a city taken by Nur al-Din, but was unsuccessful. He sent an advisor with a troop of knights to protect another city, Azaz. He himself could not stay in Antioch (William of Tyre recorded that affairs in Jerusalem needed his attention).

Around this time, however, the split between Baldwin and his mother, Queen Melisende, began to widen. (See the illustration in which he is admonishing her.) Troops loyal to Melisende refused to march to Antioch, perhaps wanting to prevent Baldwin from achieving victory.

There was also a problem in the kingdom's chancery. Melisende wanted to make Ralph the Englishman, the current chancellor of Jerusalem, the archbishop of Tyre. There was opposition to this from the bishops, and Melisende abandoned the conflict with the Church by giving up on Ralph and dismissing him. She could not appoint another with the consent of her co-ruler. Baldwin decided to keep Ralph as his advisor after Melisende dismissed him.

After this incident, the two co-rulers issued charters separate from each other through chancery. Melisende's charters mentioned Baldwin's name; Baldwin dropped Melisende's name from his pronouncements.

Melisende's most loyal supporters were in the southern part of the kingdom. Baldwin tried to consolidate power in the north, in the coastal cities of Acre and Tyre. When Melisende granted land in that area to the Hospitallers, however, Baldwin did not object, probably to maintain good relations with that particular fighting force. He found his own method of passive retaliation by re-fortifying Gaza in the south.

Baldwin made one very smart move. Byzantine Emperor Manuel I Comnenos asked for the six fortresses of the County of Edessa (it was an exchange, but the details are not important for us). Baldwin, seeing how difficult it was to defend these, gave them willingly. Within months they were lost to the Turks, and Baldwin avoided the blame for their loss.

Then Melisende made a move that disturbed Baldwin: she named her younger son, Amalric, as the Count of Jaffa without Baldwin's approval. Amalric was 15, and giving him a title of his own was not an unknown thing for a prince, but Baldwin may have seen this move—and the fact that Melisende was including Amalric's name in her charters—as an attempt to set brother against brother. 

Before we go further to see the definitive clash between Melisende and Baldwin, we should learn about Amalric. See you next time.

Baldwin and the Second Crusade

After the defeat and embarrassment of the Bosra incident, Queen Melisende tried to keep her son and co-ruler, King Baldwin III of Jerusalem, out of the spotlight. Charters issued from the throne after this included her younger son, Amalric, as if he were equal to Baldwin in authority.

When Pope Eugene III called for a Second Crusade in 1148 after the fall of Edessa, France and Germany responded. It would seem to be easier now, since the First Crusade established a foothold in the Middle East. The German forces were led by King Conrad III. They arrived in Jerusalem in April and met Baldwin (a male needed to lead the military, so this was one official function Melisende could not perform), along with the Templars.

Because Edessa had been so thoroughly damaged that it would be difficult to defend if re-taken, the Crusaders decided to attack and conquer Damascus instead. Damascus was controlled by Unur, an ally of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, so Melisende should have been against this course of action. If Baldwin could lead the army along with the Crusade on a successful military mission, his people would see his value and he could become more popular than his mother.

Melisende went with the army to Palmarea, one of their cities near Acre, where on 24 June 1148 they met up with the French contingent led by King Louis VII, who was accompanied by his wife, Eleanor of Aquitaine. All agreed to lay siege to Damascus.

They first approached Darayya, a city a few miles southwest from Damascus, but for some reason did not conquer it, deciding instead to move southeast of Damascus. This new location had little in the way of provisions or even water, and behind them Muslim forces prevented them from going back to Darayya. With the news that more Muslim forces were approaching, and with constant attacks on their hastily constructed defenses, the Crusaders started to panic. They retreated in disorder to save their lives.

Accusations of betrayal arose. Michael the Syrian (1126 - 1199), the Syriac Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch, wrote that Damascus had offered Baldwin 200,000 gold dinars if he could get the Crusade to withdraw from Damascus. The story continues that the dinars were delivered, only to turn out to be gold-plated copper. (There is no proof of this story.)

The failure of the attempted Siege of Damascus (pictured) gave Melisende the opportunity to further reduce Baldwin's authority. Charters after this do not even carry his name.

It was only a year later that he tried, again, to manage a military campaign. Would it surprise you that he was unsuccessful? His mother's confidence in him was steadily deteriorating. A serious clash was forthcoming, which we will see forming tomorrow.

Baldwin in Bosra

The decision to go to Bosra (pictured) and help Altuntash become ruler of the Hauran against the wishes of Damascene ruler Mu'in ad-Din Unur was taken by Baldwin III of Jerusalem for reasons that had more to do with saving face in front of the army rather than making a sound military decision.

Baldwin and the army had to go east into territory that was unfamiliar, finding provisions along the way. Once they arrived on a plain in southwestern Syria, they found themselves surrounded and outnumbered by Turkish forces they did not anticipate.

They should have anticipated this, however. The Bosra expedition had put them in opposition to Unur, who was an ally of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. By communicating their intent to him, they gave him time to alert others to the incursion. Unur had summoned an ally to keep an eye on the Franks. No battle took place, but the Frankish army had to move slowly, and by the time they reached Bosra, they were in for a disappointment.

While Altuntash was away from home seeking help, his wife had handed Bosra over to the Turks. Caught as strangers in a strange land with no allies and a failed quest, they chose to retreat. The Turks hampered their survival by setting fire to crops, giving the Franks dangers to overcome and a scarcity of food to find.

According to one report, in the midst of the fires, the soldiers offered Baldwin the swiftest horse to allow him to try to reach safety—he was, after all, their king. Baldwin, however, wisely refused, since from such a cowardly act he would  never be able to regain the confidence and respect of the army—he was, after all, their king.

William of Tyre claimed the Franks owed their survival to divine intervention. Archbishop of Nazareth Robert I had a piece of the True Cross; he raised it high, and the wind changed direction, blowing the flames away from the Franks. There was also a story of a knight on a white horse with a red banner miraculously appearing and leading the army to safety.

A contemporary Arab chronicler of Damascus, writing a little later from eyewitness accounts, informs us that Unur held back his army, allowing the Franks to leave without incident to avoid a larger military retaliation later.

Melisende (rightly) ascribed the failure of this campaign to Baldwin, and used it to exclude him from future decisions.

But it was 1147, and Europe was already planning what would become known as the Second Crusade. As King of Jerusalem, Baldwin would of course become involved. This would lead to another military failure with lots of finger pointing, and some of the fingers would point at Baldwin, but that's a story for tomorrow.

Queen Melisende

With Fulk of Anjou dead from a riding accident in 1143, Melisende now had full control over the Kingdom of Jerusalem with her son Baldwin III still only 13 years old. (The illustration is of their dual coronation.)

Her first changes were to replace appointees to government that Fulk had chosen. Not allowed as a woman to be head of the army, she chose Manasses of Hierges, her recently arrived cousin, as constable in control of the military. Manasses was a loyal supporter whom she could trust completely.

Her inner circle also included Philip of Milly (who would become connected to the Templars), Elinand of Tiberias whom Melisende helped become Prince of Galilee, and Rohard the Elder (whom she had been angry with earlier, for good reason).

In 1144, Baldwin asserted himself. The residents of Wadi Musa in southern Jordan decided to rebel against Melisende's rule and called Muslim forces to help them. Baldwin acted by cutting down all their olive trees, their livelihood, and offered to pardon them for their rebellion. Wadi Musa dismissed the Muslims and accepted the pardons.

Melisende was not ready for Baldwin to be seen as a ruler, however, so the next time military action was needed—later in 1144, in fact, when Edessa came under siege by Zengid dynasty Muslims—an appeal to Baldwin by the Edessans was intercepted by his mother who had Manasses go to Edessa without Baldwin's involvement.

Then, in 1147, another opportunity for a military action created a chaotic situation.

The governor of Bosra, Altuntash, wanted to secede from the ruler of Damascus, the Mamluk Mu'in ad-Din Unur. He asked for help from the Franks, offering them his towns and territories if they would help him rule the Hauran (a region that spans parts of southern Syria and northern Jordan). This was risky for more than one reason. Bosra was farther east than the Franks had ever tried to exert any influence, and until that time Unur had been a peaceful neighbor and ally.

Hauran had a Christian population, and Melisende's councilors thought the idea was sound, so they assembled an army. The Franks also sent a messenger to Unur to inform him that they intended to support Altuntash's claim. Unur sent the word back that he did not wish them to proceed, and would even compensate them financially for their expenses if only they would call off the plan. The messenger, Bernard Vacher, who had served Baldwin's father and later stayed with Baldwin, informed the young king of Unur's intent.

Baldwin saw the wisdom of not going any further. The assembled army, however, saw things differently. They had been looking forward to the opportunity for plunder, and loudly expressed their disappointment in the king's decision. The still-teenaged king acquiesced, and the army headed east.

How big a mistake that was will be the subject for tomorrow's post. See you then.

Melisende and Fulk, Part 3

The King and Queen of Jerusalem were very involved in supporting and promoting the Christian religion. Queen Melisende contributed to many convents, for instance, starting with the Convent of Sant Anne where her sister Ioveta was.

Fulk and Melisende convinced the Patriarch of Jerusalem to give them jurisdiction over Bethany near Jerusalem so that they could build a monastery or convent. Melisende in 1138 would start building a convent. The Convent of Saint Lazarus took six years to build, and in 1144 it was granted the status of an abbey by Pope Celestine II. An experienced abbess was installed, with the understanding that the young Ioveta would succeed her, which she did in short order. Fulk's daughter from his first marriage, Sibylla of Anjou, became a nun there during a pilgrimage with her husband, and never returned to Europe.

There were other gifts to religious institutions. The Temple of the Lord (now called the Dome of the Rock) was given lands from which to draw revenue. Melisende gave grants to the Hospitallers, to the leper hospital of the Order of Lazarus (not connected to Ioveta's abbey), and to the Premonstratensians and their Church of Saint Samuel.

Melisende's mother, Morphia of Melitene, was buried in the Abbey of Saint Mary of the Valley of Jehosaphat, a Benedictine abbey founded by Godfrey of Bouillon in the eastern part of the Old City of Jerusalem. This burial started a tradition of the queens of Jerusalem being buried apart from their husbands. Melisende herself would also be buried there. (The illustration is part of the recovered artwork from the abbey, now in a museum in Jerusalem.)

She also supported the Syriac Orthodox Church. When a Frankish knight tried to claim some land possessed by the Syriac Church, Fulk supported the knight. Melisende expressed her displeasure at this, and Fulk agreed that no decision would be final until the case was debated in Melisende's presence. Once that happened, the land stayed in Syriac hands.

On 7 November 1143, the court was at Acre, enjoying a picnic. During a ride, Fulk decided to chase a hare. His horse threw him, and Fulk was knocked unconscious. He was carried back to Acre where he died on the 10th. That Christmas, Melisende went through a second coronation, this time including her son Baldwin III, who was 13 years old. Although Baldwin tried to assert himself, Melisende had complete control over the government now. Let's find out what that was like, starting tomorrow.

Melisende

Baldwin II, Count of Edessa, and Morphia of Melitene had four daughters. When it seemed likely that a son was not going to happen, Baldwin named his eldest daughter Melisende as his heir presumptive. This was a bold move, since rulers were also supposed to be able to lead armies, and an army led by a woman was not customary at this place or time.

Melisende was born sometime between 1104 and 1109, probably in Edessa (upper Mesopotamia). With a Frankish father and an Armenian mother, she and her sisters would have grown up learning French and Armenian, and probably Greek as well.

Her father became King of Jerusalem in 1118, succeeding Baldwin I, and Morphia was named the first Queen of Jerusalem. Morphia did not involve herself in government affairs, but is credited with instilling the "fear of God" in her daughter, according to one contemporary writer. In 1119, Baldwin sent to Edessa for his wife and daughters to join him in Jerusalem.

Melisende was married to Fulk of Anjou (father of Sibylla) in 1129. Fulk was 37 and much older than Melisende, but had 17 years of experience as a ruler and was recently made a widower. During pilgrimages to Jerusalem he had developed good relations with the local nobles.

Fulk made clear during negotiations that he was willing to marry Melisende but needed her right of succession made certain. He wanted to guarantee that she was her father's heir as queen (therefore giving him the right by marriage to be king) instead of the other children. Another daughter, Alice, had been married to Prince Bohemond II of Antioch, and Fulk did not want that couple pressing a claim to the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Baldwin started including Melisende's name in official documents alongside his own, listing her as "daughter of the king and heir of the kingdom" to make sure everyone understood the plan.

With the agreement in place, Fulk passed the title Count of Anjou to his son Geoffrey and went to Jerusalem in May 1129. Melisende's dowry was the cities of Acre and Tyre. Melisende gave birth to a son in early 1130, Baldwin III of Jerusalem.

Baldwin II died on 21 August 1131.

Fulk and Melisende were crowned King and Queen of Jerusalem in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre (see illustration). After that, Fulk started to show his true colors, sidelining the queen from government affairs. We'll see how that went tomorrow.

Amalric and Philip

One of the reasons King Amalric of Jerusalem wanted Philip of Milly to be Grand Master of the Templars, especially after the death of Bertrand de Blanchefort, was because Bertrand had refused to join Amalric's military expeditions into Egypt in 1168 and Philip did. Amalric and Philip had a relationship going back before Philip joined the Templars. Let me explain.

When King of Jerusalem Baldwin II died (c.1075 - 21 August 1131), he granted the kingdom to his eldest daughter's (and his son-in-law's, and his infant grandson's) hands. Her name was Melisende, and she is the first female ruler of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. She had a reputation (according to William of Tyre) for wisdom and Christian charity. (The illustration is of her coronation.)

She was married to Fulk of Anjou who, as king by marriage, tried to rule without her involvement. Melisende's cousin Count Hugh of Jaffa led a rebellion to ensure Melisende's pre-eminence, after which she had so much power that she was able to reduce Fulk's ability to do anything without her agreement. When Fulk died (10 November 1143), she and her son Baldwin III ruled. Prior to Fulk's death, however, the couple had another son, Amalric, born in 1136.

Baldwin III (1130 - 10 February 1163) was only a teenager, and Melisende held the reins of the kingdom firmly in her hands, not even allowing him more authority when he came of age in 1145. The High Court decided in 1152 that it was unfair for Baldwin III (who was an heir named by his grandfather, after all) to be left with nothing, therefore the kingdom should be divided between mother and son. Melisende was granted the southern part of the kingdom, including Nablus on the West Bank, Palestine.

This solution actually inspired Baldwin to besiege his mother in the Tower of David to grab the whole kingdom. As his forces advanced on her location, many of her lords deserted her, but not all. Her most loyal, who remained with her, included her son Amalric and Philip of Milly, Lord of Nablus. Fulk had prevented Philip from inheriting his father's title in Nablus; Philip had only come into his own once Melisende took over from Fulk the complete running of the kingdom. 

She agreed to relinquish power; she went to Nablus. Philip was loyal to Melisende, and her son Amalric and Philip had been through some harrowing times together. When Amalric as king invaded Egypt, the Templars under Bertrand refused to join him, but Philip, who had joined the Templars in 1166, personally went with his friend. When Bertrand died, the King of Jerusalem Amalric I ensured that his loyal friend would become head of the Order that now Amalric could call on for military support.

For something different now, what was the Tower of David in which she took refuge? Was it called that originally, or appropriated from a Muslim structure? We can take a look at it tomorrow.

Philip of Milly

After the death of Templar Grand Master Bertrand de Blanchefort, King Amalric I of Jerusalem saw a chance to help himself out. Bertrand had refused to help an assault on Egypt in 1168, concerned about how a previous attempt had failed and not wanting to lose Templar lives needlessly. Amalric saw a chance to influence the next Grand Master and put in place someone who would be more of an ally. He turned to Philip of Milly.

Philip of Milly (c.1120 - 3 April 1171; that's his coat of arms in the illustration) was a baron in the Kingdom of Jerusalem who had inherited his father's estates in Nablus in the West Bank, Palestine. He was around when the Second Crusade arrived, and was at the meeting in Acre when the Crusade (against the advice and votes of local rulers) chose to attack Damascus in 1148, leading to a disastrous defeat for the crusaders.

In 1161, Philip traded his lordship of Nablus for Transjordan, a region east of the Jordan River. This deal was made under King Baldwin III. It was Baldwin's successor, Amalric, who almost certainly influenced the Templars to accept Philip as their new Grand Master. Philip was a good choice for Amalric because they were allies in an earlier venture against Baldwin. Philip was good for the Templars because he had land and revenues from said land that could be donated to the Templars.

Philip joined in 1166 (not yet as Grand Master), bringing with him a large part of Transjordan and granting to the Templars the castle of Ahamant (now Amman, Jordan). Philip himself joined Amalric's new attempt to invade Egypt in 1168, although the rest of the members of the order would not go because of Bertrand's decision. When Bertrand died in 1169, Amalric pressured the Templars to accept Philip as their new leader. Although Bertrand had established policy that a Grand Master needed agreement from the order to go to war, Philip brought the Templars to the next invasion attempt, which failed.

Philip resigned as Grand Master a short time later, in 1171. He went with Amalric to Constantinople as an ambassador, but died before reaching the city.

Why was Amalric so motivated to get Philip elected as Grand Master? What was the connection between them in the affair against Baldwin? That's a good story, and I'll share it next time.

Templars: The Early Days

Formed about 1120 by Hugues de Payens and eight others—including André de Montbard, the uncle of St. Bernard of Clairvaux—the Poor Fellow-Soldiers of Christ and of the Temple of Solomon, aka Templars, had some trouble getting established. They wanted to be a monastic order of knights to provide protection to pilgrims in the Holy Land, which had been opened up to Western European Travel by the Crusades (begun in 1095).

King Baldwin II of Jerusalem had given them space in the palace complex on the Temple Mount, which had most recently been the captured Al-Aqsa Mosque. They had no funds, however, and so André de Montbard turned to his already famous nephew to write an endorsement of the order, after which they started to thrive. André eventually became the Grand Master, but with his death in 1156 the last of the original nine founders was gone. The next Grand Master took a step back and decided it was time for reform.

Bertrand de Blanchefort (c.1109 - 13 January 1169) was a son of Lord Godfrey of Guyenne. Although raised as a warrior and becoming a member of an order of warrior-monks, he wanted to emphasize facets of the Templars other than their status as soldiers. One step was to ask the pope for permission to use the title "Master by Grace of God" in order to stress the religious nature of the order less than the military nature.

He also wrote a set of clear rules for different positions in the order, and created checks and balances against the Grand Master's role, to ensure that future Grand Masters could not make decisions on the order's purpose or goals without the support of the rest of the knights.

In 1157, he was captured after fighting alongside King Baldwin III of Jerusalem in a battle against Nur ad-Din Zangi, ruler of the Syrian province of the Seljuk Empire. He remained a prisoner for three years until the Byzantine Emperor Manuel I Comnenos made a peace treaty with Nur ad-Din and had Bertrand released.

Bertrand also fought with Baldwin's successor, Amalric I, in an unsuccessful expedition against Egypt in 1163. Another expedition was planned in 1168, but Bertrand refused to participate, and was involved instead in drawing up a peace treaty with Egypt later. After Bertrand's death, however, Amalric pressured the Templars to elect Philip of Milly as their next Grand Master, a man with whom Amalric already had a relationship. Because of this choice, Amalric gained Templar support for future fighting forays. Who was this next Grand Master? Where did he come from? I'll talk about him next time.