Bernard of Clairvaux

Like many well-known theologians/priests in the Middle Ages, Bernard of Clairvaux was born to a wealthy family. This was in Burgundy in 1090, in the family's manor that still exists today (with modifications) as a convent named in his honor.

One of seven children (six sons, one daughter), he was sent at the age of nine to a school miles away, where he took a special interest in rhetoric and literature. He also developed a special interest in the Virgin Mary, seeing her as the ideal human intercessor between mankind and God. Later in life he would write several works about her, although he did not accept the idea of the Immaculate Conception.

His mother's death when he was 19 years old motivated him to devote himself to a cloistered life. He joined Cîteaux Abbey, a relatively new establishment (founded 1098) for those who wished to strictly live according to the Rule of St. Benedict. When a scion of one of the noblest families of Burgundy chose the monastic life, his example prompted scores of young men to do the same. By 1115, the community had grown large enough that a new abbey was needed, and Bernard was elected to take a group of 12 monks to the Vallée d'Absinthe and found a new one. He named this the Claire Vallée ("Clear Valley"), and the name Clairvaux became attached to him.

Bernard's example was such that all male members of his immediate family ultimately joined Clairvaux, leaving only his younger sister, Humbeline in the outside world. (She eventually got permission from her husband to enter a Benedictine nunnery.) His brother Gerard, a soldier, joined after being wounded; Bernard made him the cellarer, a job at which he was so efficient that he was sought after for advice by craftsmen of all kinds. Gerard of Clairvaux also became a saint.

A rivalry arose between Clairvaux and Cluny Abbey. Cluny's reputation for monasticism and the physical size of its church made it a little proud, and the growing reputation of Cîteaux and Clairvaux rankled. While Bernard was on a trip away from Clairvaux, the Abbot of Cluny visited and persuaded one of its members, Bernard's cousin Robert of Châtillon, to join Cluny. This bothered Bernard deeply. Cluny criticized the way of life at Cîteaux, causing Bernard to write a defense of it, his Apology. The Apology was so convincing that the abbot of Cluny, Peter the Venerable, affirmed his admiration and friendship. Another person convinced by the Apology was Abbot Suger.

At the Council of Troyes in 1128, Bernard was asked by Pope Honorius II to attend and made him secretary, giving him the responsibility to draw up synodal statutes. He also composed a rule for the Knights Templar. Bernard's reputation had grown to the point that he was sought after as a mediator. In the schism of 1130, when there were two popes, King Louis VI brought the French bishops together to find a way forward. The person chosen to make the final decision on which pope was authentic and which an antipope? Bernard of Clairvaux. I'll tell you more about that, and his further successes, tomorrow.

The Immaculate Conception

The Immaculate Conception is the Roman Catholic dogma that Mary, the mother of Jesus, was free from original sin from the moment of her conception. Some early Church fathers such as Cyril of Jerusalem developed this idea when they compared Mary to Eve, who was created without sin.

The 2nd-century Gospel of James, although not chosen as an official Biblical text, introduced the notion that Mary's birth was special. It introduces Anne and Joachim, Mary's parents, who could not conceive a child. God hears their prayers, and Anne becomes pregnant without intercourse between her and her husband. James claims that, on her first birthday, Mary is blessed by priests who declare that God will bring redemption to Israel through her.

The Council of Ephesus in 431 (mentioned here) gave Mary the title Mother of God. It was difficult to accept that someone so close to Jesus was not herself special in some way, and difficult to accept that she would have engaged in sinful acts.

Mary's conception was being celebrated in the Eastern Church in the 7th century and spread to England in the 11th, promoted by the scholar Eadmer, who thought God's omnipotence meant it was possible Mary was conceived without sin. His Latin summary was Potuit, decuit, fecit, "it was possible, it was fitting, [therefore] it was done."

Bernard of Clairvaux and Thomas Aquinas objected to the reasoning, because if Mary could be born without original sin, then why did we need Jesus as Savior to free mankind from original sin? Duns Scotus argued against them, claiming that being "preserved free from original sin was a greater grace than to be set free from sin." His reasoning was that it was God's grace that "saved" her, not anything inherent in herself. This distinguishes her from the Savior who was free from sin inherently.

In 1439, the Council of Basel declared that the idea of the Immaculate Conception was an opinion consistent with faith and Scripture. The Council of Trent in the mid-1500s, while establishing a proper calendar for saints and feast days, declared that she was exempt from original sin, and shortly after the Feast of the Immaculate Conception on 8 December gained an elaborate celebration.

Despite sketchy scholarship, the idea of the Immaculate Conception of Mary was a very popular idea. In 1849, Pope Pius IX asked the bishops of the Church whether the Immaculate Conception should be enshrined in dogma. Ninety percent supported it, although some pointed out that there was no Scriptural support for the idea. It became official dogma on 8 December 1854, declared by Pope Pius IX.

Bernard of Clairvaux, despite his opposition to the concept of the Immaculate Conception, was especially devoted to Mary and wrote several works about her. He was also a saint, co-founder of the Templars, and a Doctor of the Church for his learning and efforts. I'll tell you more tomorrow.

The Death of an Inquisitor

The picture is misleading, I'm afraid, because the subject of today's post died a natural death, but it is certain that there were plenty of contemporaries who would have been glad to see him executed sooner.

Nicholas Eymerich (c.1316 - 1399) was an Inquisitor General from Catalan who made lots of enemies through his hyper-zealous search for heresy of any kind (according to his opinion). At one point he fled to Avignon and the pope's support when he had gone too far in Aragon.

He returned to Aragon in 1381 and discovered that his rival, Bernardo Ermengaudi, had been named Inquisitor General. Eymerich ignored this turn of events and continued to act as if he were the inquisitor. When he forbade the teaching of Ramon Llull in Barcelona—one of his problems with Llull was the idea of the Immaculate Conception of Mary, which Eymerich did not believe—King Peter IV found out and ordered him drowned, but was persuaded by Queen Eleanor of Sicily to exile him instead. Eymerich ignored the order of exile, because the king's son John was on his side. In 1386, Peter IV died and John succeeded him, which allowed Eymerich to act with impunity.

Remember the term "hyper-zealous"? Eymerich in 1388 declared he would interrogate the entire town of Valencia for heresy, imprisoning the chancellor of the university. This was too far for King John, who freed the chancellor and exiled Eymerich, who took sanctuary in a church for two years until he finally decided to leave and go to Avignon again.

After John's death in 1396, Eymerich returned to the Dominican monastery in Girona where he had his start. He was 80 years old at the time, and so a little less energetic. He lived in the monastery quietly until his death in 1399.

Now, about the Immaculate Conception of Mary: this is something every Roman Catholic in the 20th century grew up knowing. We assume that this concept was established long ago, and so it is a surprise that the 14th century saw it as a controversy. Many Roman Catholics are even uncertain of what it means. What is it, and what did the Middle Ages think of the idea? That's a good topic for tomorrow.