The Vallombrosians

Giovanni Gualberto (c. 985 – 12 July 1073) was not the sort of person you would expect to found a monastic order. A nobleman born in a castle, he hunted down the man who killed his brother in order to get revenge. Finding the man in Florence, he was about to exact his revenge when the man threw himself on the ground with arms outstretched in the form of a cross and begged for mercy in the name of Christ.

Giovanni had a change of heart and forgave the man. On his way home, he stopped at the church at San Miniato to pray. Legend says that the figure of Christ on the crucifix bowed its head to him, supposedly in recognition of his act of mercy. This is the subject of the 19th century artist Burne-Jones' painting of "The Merciful Knight" (shown here).

Giovanni decided to cut his hair and start wearing a borrowed monk's habit. He joined the monastery at San Miniato, but felt he needed a more ascetic life. He spent some time with the monks at Camaldoli, but eventually founded his own monastery at Vallombrosa in 1036.

The Vallombrosian Congregation is now part of the Benedictine Confederation and has nine houses and a few dozen monks, but for it to have nine locations suggests great popularity in the past (see below). Giovanni adopted the Rule of St. Benedict, but stressed more austerity than the Rule. Poverty is strictly enforced, silence is mandatory and constant, cloistering is essential: the monks did not leave the premises even to help others. While the Rule of St. Benedict requires work, Giovanni's system required lay brothers to do any essential work, while the monks themselves spent their entire day in silence and contemplation. They wore habits originally of gray or ash-colored, but now wear the traditional Benedictine garb.

After Giovanni's death, the order spread, especially after a bull by Pope Urban II in 1090 gave the Vallombrosians papal support and protection. A bull by Pope Paschal II in 1115 mentions 12 Vallombrosian houses, and one by Pope Anastasius IV mentions 24. In Pope Innocent III's time there were more than 60 houses.

Giovanni was canonized in 1193 by Pope Celestine III.

The Benedictine Confederation has members all over the world, many founded in the 19th century. There were two other groups founded in the 13th century, the Silvestrines and the English. We will talk about the Silvestrine Congregation next.

Camaldolese Hermits

The earliest-founded monastic group that is currently part of the Benedictine Confederation is the Camaldolese Hermits of Mount Corona. It was established about 980 CE by the Italian monk, Saint Romuald.

Romuald (c. 950 - 1025/27) was born in an aristocratic family in Ravenna, in northeastern Italy. An indulged and indulgent youth, at the age of 20 his life changed when he was his father's second in a duel. Seeing his father win the duel—in which he killed a relative over a property dispute—changed the young man. Romuald did 40 days of penance for his part in the affair, and became a monk at the Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Ravenna.

Although his location followed the Cluniac Order, Romuald wanted something more strict, and he raised the ire of his comrades by criticizing their excesses and lapses. He was given permission to leave the monastery; he went to live under the guidance of a strict hermit in Venice.

In a parallel to Romuald's turning point, we turn to the doge of Venice in 978, Pietro I Orseolo. Pietro had taken the position after being involved in a conspiracy to overthrow his predecessor, Pietro IV Candiano. Orseolo, feeling remorse for his actions two years earlier, left Venice in the middle of the night without telling anyone, not even his family, and went with Romuald and others to join the Benedictines at at Saint-Michel-de-Cuxa in southern France.

Over the next several years, Romuald refined his ideas of monasticism, then spent 30 years traveling Italy and preaching the benefits of a strict monastic life, founding and reforming monasteries. An attempt to be abbot at the Basilica of Sant'Apollinare on the invitation of Holy Roman Emperor Otto III failed, since the monks objected to his reforms.

In 1012 he arrived in Arezzo, where he was given land in Camaldoli, upon which Romuald built five hermit cells; these and a monastery built two years later became the motherhouse for the Camaldolese Order.

Romuald's idea of a proper life was laid out in his rule, entitled "Empty yourself completely and sit waiting." His central advice for monks and hermits was:

Sit in your cell as in paradise. Put the whole world behind you and forget it. Watch your thoughts like a good fisherman watching for fish. The path you must follow is in the Psalms — never leave it.

There are a dozen locations that are part of the Camaldolese Congregation totaling several dozen members.

Before settling in Arezzo, Romuald stayed for a time in Vallombrosa. Years later, a monk stayed at Camaldoli for awhile, and then started his own congregation at Vallombrosa. The next-oldest member of the Benedictine Confederation is the Vallombrosian Congregation, and we'll see what makes them different tomorrow.

The Olivetans

The Rule of St. Benedict was very influential and led to the founding of many monasteries. It was also adopted by groups that started their own orders, leading to a Benedictine Confederation founded in 1893, 19 groups that follow the Rule but are separate orders. One such group is the Olivetans.

The Olivetans, or the Order of Our Lady of Mount Olivet, was "started" in 1313 by Bernardo Tolomei (10 May 1272 – 20 August 1348; see illustration), a Tuscan who was educated by his Dominican uncle and determined to enter the religious life. Originally named Giovanni, after becoming a professor of law at the University of Siena and spending time as a soldier/knight under Rudolph I of Germany, he changed his name to Bernardo (after the Cistercian Bernard of Clairvaux) and started living as a hermit with two friends on property owned by his family.

Somewhere around late 1318 or early 1319, Bernardo had a vision of a ladder with monks dressed in white ascending with the aid of angels to where Jesus and Mary waited for them. He decided to formally found his Order in 1319, using the Rule of St. Benedict, with particular devotion to the Virgin Mary. Pope Clement VI recognized the Order in 1344. A generous merchant constructed a monastery for them at Siena, and several more sprang up in the following years.

Unfortunately for Bernardo, he did not live to see the Order thrive for very long after its recognition by Clement. When the Bubonic Plague came to the shores of Italy, Bernardo and several monks  left the relative solitude and safety of their monastery to Siena, where the people were suffering greatly. The monks tended the sick, and Bernardo himself along with 82 fellow monks contracted the disease and died.

The order survived, however. In 1408, Pope Gregory XII gave them an unused monastery of St. Justina of Padua. Even now they still have 20 houses, although the total number of monks, nuns, and priests in the Order are fewer than 500.

The Benedictine Congregation has 19 different groups, 14 of which were founded after 1500. Some, however, are much older than the Olivetans, and I'd like to share some of their stories starting tomorrow.

The Headless Saint

Saint Miniato, or Minias, was an Armenian prince who made a pilgrimage to Rome in the 3rd century CE. his pilgrimage led him to become a Christian hermit near Florence, creating a hermitage on a hill called the Mons Florentinus (Mount Florence). This was a time when the emperor, Decius (249 - 251), was actively persecuting Christians after a period of tolerance, even killing a pope.

Miniato was brought before Decius and told to sacrifice to the Roman gods. His refusal led to several tortures. He was put into a furnace, then stoned, then put in an amphitheater with a lion. None of these punishments harmed him. Finally, he was taken to the Piazza della Signoria (the meeting place of Florentine politics) in Florence and beheaded. The legend then takes an even more drastic turn than surviving burning and stoning.

Miniato's body picked up his head, crossed the Arno river and walked up the Mons Florentinus to his hermitage. The hill is now called Saint Minias Hill. A shrine was erected there, and there was a chapel by the 8th century.

In 1013, a bishop began a church named for the saint, with a Benedictine monastery adjacent. The high altar is said to contain the bones of Miniato. A Byzantine-style mosaic dated from 1297 of Christ flanked by Mary and Miniato is over the apse (see illustration). Miniato is shown holding a crown because of his royal origin. It also contains a carving of all the zodiac symbols.

A two kilometer pilgrimage exists that mirrors the walk of the headless saint. You can read a description and see some photographs of the views here.

The Benedictine monastery was transferred o the Cluniacs, and then in 1373 to the Olivetans, a group that has never been mentioned in this blog before. I will tell you about them next time.

Medieval Magic

Although the Western European Middle Ages considered themselves thoroughly Christianized, they had plenty of un-Christian "lapses." One was on the subject of magic, twisting nature to match your whims. Magic was thoroughly condemned in both the Old and New Testaments, but practices such as divination via different methods, use of charms and potions for healing, warding off danger, and sorcery were studied and performed.

Astrology as a significant part of the study of magic and the way the world worked. Zodiac signs were considered to correspond to different body parts, and health/illness were connected to astrological influences. This was so accepted that all the signs of the zodiac are engraved on the walls of the San Miniato al Monte basilica in Florence, Italy, begun in 1018 CE. (see illustration)

Divination, the attempt to learn things that are hidden from human faculties or are events in the future, was classified by Isidore of Seville. There were four primary types attached to the four elements (geomancy, hydromancy, aeromancy, and pyromancy), as well as observing the natural world (astrology, birds flying either left or right, etc.).

Medical Magic was acceptable, described in leechbooks. Besides just medicines, there were Masses to bless the herbs used, and actions listed such as spitting and reciting verses to make the cure effective. Even inscribing the names of the evangelists on straws and mixing them with the medicine was considered an important part of ensuring efficacy.

There were attempts to condemn magic over time. In 1456, Bavarian physician Johannes Hartlieb listed seven prohibited arts: the four types of divination of Isidore, as well as nigromancy ("black" magic; not to be confused with necromancy, "corpse" magic), chiromancy (reading palms), and scapulimancy (use of the shoulder blades, scapulae, to foretell the future).

Let's take a closer look at San Miniato al Monte next time, the church founded by a headless saint.

Warding Off Evil

The Classical and Medieval (and Modern, if truth be told) Eras were wary of the world around them, teeming with supernatural forces that could not be controlled. They could, however, be guarded against, a practice the modern age has dubbed Apotropaic Magic. From the Greek word meaning "to ward off," apotropaic magic consists of physical charms, verbal charms, or gestures intended to protect the user from bad luck or evil spirits.

Gestures are simple movements available to anyone. We jokingly "knock on wood" in the hopes that a tree spirit will hear us and make our desires come true. We "cross our fingers" to ensure good luck in an endeavor. If we spill salt—a bad omen—we toss some over our shoulder to throw the bad luck away. Folding our hands in prayer is also an apotropaic gesture.

There are fewer examples of verbal charms. The most commonly used is saying "Bless you" after someone sneezes. Sneezing in some parts of the world was (is?) considered a bad omen, a warning of some future calamity. In the European Middle Ages, sneezing was significant because it was connected to breathing, important for life. A sneeze might mean something bad will happen to your health, and saying "Bless you" is a way to prevent that. The German "Gesundheit" wishes "Wellness" on the sneezer.

More complicated forms of apotropaic magic require preparation. These are charms made to be carried or worn. Some were written down and carried on paper or parchment. Shown above is a magical seal from an English medical manuscript designed to ward off lightning.

Amulets were physical objects designed for protection, sometimes made of amber, but they could be made with any material. In Ireland, a St. Brigid's Day (1 February) custom was to weave a cross of rushes to ward off lightning, sickness, and evil. Horseshoes were nailed over or near doorways for good luck, although their orientation has different interpretations. Some say if the ends point down, the luck will "run out." In Rutland the ends pointing up meant the devil could sit in the hollow, so there the ends must point down. Some say the shape mirrors the phases of the moon, and the ends should point down to correspond to the waxing moon, which is more propitious than the waning moon. (Other folklore says planting should be done at the new moon, so the crops begin to grow as the moon "grows.")

Although Simon Magus in the Bible was a negative figure, and there are plenty of Biblical warnings against magic, that did not prevent the Christian Middle Ages from exploring magic and trying to turn it to their uses. We will look more closely at Medieval Magic tomorrow.

Amber, Medical and Mystical

Besides being attractive and easily carved into jewelry, amber was considered special in many ways. Its special attributes were first described by Pliny. Pliny did not follow Ovid's idea that amber was the hardened tears of a Greek goddess; he figured out it was likely tree sap:

Amber is produced from a marrow discharged by trees belonging to the pine genus,... It is a liquid at first, which issues forth in considerable quantities, and is gradually hardened [...] Our forefathers, too, were of opinion that it is the juice of a tree, and for this reason gave it the name of succinum, and one great proof that it is the produce of a tree of the pine genus, is the fact that it emits a pine-like smell when rubbed, and that it burns, when ignited, with the odor and appearance of torch-pine wood. [Natural History. Book 37.XI]

That did not mean, however, that he did not make note of its supposed special properties:

... Amber, indeed, is supposed to be a prophylactic against tonsillitis and other affections of the pharynx, for the water near the Alps has properties that harm the human throat in various ways.

Pliny also noted that "It is of benefit to babies when it is attached to them as an amulet." Amber was commonly used as magical amulets or talismans, either carved into a significant shape, or inscribed with a phrase that provided protection. The one shown here of a mother and child might have been designed to promote the health and welfare of both.

Another quality was noted in an article on the Getty website. "Amber could also symbolize constancy. Amber necklaces were gifts for brides, mortal and immortal, as the ancient sources tell us." [link] This is interesting because amber, unlike other precious and semiprecious materials, starts out with a luster from polishing that is very attractive but is anything but constant. Amber loses its luster and translucency over time, and amber items carved centuries ago are nowhere near as attractive to look at as they were at the time of creation.

Despite Pliny, the Middle Ages still looked to a link between amber and the sun, due to its golden color (when new). The most prominent belief was that amber was protection against negative influences, warding off evil spirits and bringing good luck.

The type of magic mentioned in the previous paragraph—intended to ward off evil spirits or other harmful influences—is called apotropaic magic, and has been very popular throughout history. Let's take a look at some examples tomorrow.

Amber

Amber has been a material of desire since antiquity. We know now that it is 40 million-year-old fossilized tree sap, but in ancient times there was no known origin.

It often was found washed up on the shore of the Baltic Sea and other bodies of water. This prompted Ovid in the 1st century CE to attribute it to the tears of a minor sea goddess, Clymene, the mother (by Helios, the sun god) of Phaethon, who begged Helios to let him drive the chariot of the sun, lost control, and was killed by a thunderbolt from Zeus to prevent disaster. Phaethon's mother and sisters were so devastated by their loss that they turned into poplar trees. Amber was the remains of their tears before they transformed. In fact, the Greek word for amber was electrum, derived from the Greek word for the sun.

Other myths to explain it were the death of Meleager, whose mother's tears turned to amber; solidified sunlight; material originating in a temple in Ethiopia; from a river in India; solidified urine of the male lynx (its dark color resembled amber). Aristotle called it "hardened resin," but others looked for more interesting origins.

The Roman writer Pliny the Elder, while including all materials and precious stones in his Natural History, noticed that burning amber produced a pine scent, and that it was observed to sometimes have insects trapped inside. Concluding that the insects got into it while amber was in a liquid state, he concluded that it was the sap of the pine tree. He also felt that the sap became amber because of the interaction of the sea, since it was found on shores.

After the 3rd century CE, Roman interest in amber seemed to wane, but in the Medieval Era its popularity was revived by the Armenians, who made it into jewelry and kept a healthy trade with other areas through the Amber Road.

Its popularity as jewelry or art came because it was relatively easy to carve and shape. Above you can see an Anglo-Saxon amber necklace from a female burial at Linton Heath in Cambridgeshire dated 450-550 CE. But its popularity went beyond merely being attractive. It was considered to have medicinal and even mystical properties. I'll tell you about them tomorrow.

The Amber Road

Yesterday mentioned Wulfstan of Hedeby stopping at a place along the Amber Road. The Amber Road was a trade route (part of it shown here) that connected Mediterranean countries with the Baltic Sea, where amber was relatively plentiful.

Sometimes called "gold of the north," amber was known to be used a millennium prior to the Common Era by the Etruscans. At the end of that time and the beginning of the Common Era the Celts built a large trade industry with amber and had routes to the Roman Empire. In the first few centuries CE it was considered a symbol of the Roman Empire's growing power.

Using the "path of least resistance," it usually went along river valleys. The main route went from (what is now) Vienna through, Wrocław, Kalis (Kalisia), Konin (Setidava), and eventually to Gdańsk. Kaliningrad, originally founded during a Crusade to convert the Prussians, has a massive amber mine you can visit today. When Rome conquered the areas of the central Danube, the speed of transport really took off as Roman merchants found it easier to travel northward to where they could purchase or barter for the material.

Like any important trade route (such as the Silk Road), the Amber Road led to the development of towns along its path, which meant more merchants of various goods, purveyors of food and drink, and owners/builders of inns that thrived along the route. Bags of amber, furs (mainly beaver), leather and wood went south, while metalwork such as belt buckles and clasps along with fabrics went north.

What was the allure of amber? It was made into jewelry, of course, but it had other uses according to friend-of-the-blog Pliny the Elder. I'll share his thoughts next time.

Wulfstan of Hedeby

Long before the Prussian Crusades of later centuries, Alfred the Great of England sent his emissary, Wulfstan of Hedeby, to Prussia in 890. Alfred was interested in opening up trade with other countries, and also wanted to spread Christianity. Wulfstan's trip is described in the Anglo-Saxon work "The Voyages of Ohthere and Wulfstan." It contains the earliest English record of Old Prussian culture.

Wulfstan may have been Anglo-Saxon, or may have been from Hedeby originally, which was Danish at the time, although now in northern Germany. The account that he shared with Alfred tells of his travel from Hedeby to Truso, a Scandinavian trading port along the Amber Road. Alfred included Wulfstan's account when he translated Orosius' Histories. He names his itinerary:

Wulfstan said that he went from Haethum to Truso in seven days and nights, and that the ship was running under sail all the way. Weonodland was on his right, and Langland, Laeland, Falster, and Sconey, on his left, all which land is subject to Denmark. Then on our left we had the land of the Burgundians, who have a king to themselves. Then, after the land of the Burgundians, we had on our left the lands that have been called from the earliest times Blekingey, and Meore, and Eowland, and Gotland, all which territory is subject to the Sweons; and Weonodland (the land of the Wends) was all the way on our right, as far as the Vistula estuary.

Wulfstan was the first to use the word "Prussian" to describe the people he met, although they were also known as "Aesti." He describes their social structure as having rulers (cyning), nobles (ricostan), paupers (unspedigan), and slaves (þeowan).

Wulfstan also reported their funeral customs:

The Aesti have the following custom: when someone dies, their body lies unburnt in their house for a month or sometimes two; kings and nobles lie even longer, proportionally to their affluence […] While the deceased is lying in the house, the family and friends drink and celebrate until he or she is burnt.

The Aesti have the custom that every deceased person, irrespective of their social position, is burnt. If they do not burn a part of the body, they have to offer great propitiatory prayers and sacrifices.

But enough about Prussia for now. What about the reference above to the Amber Road? Was it something like the Silk Road? Let's find out tomorrow.

The Prussian Crusade

The Prussians of the 13th century (and before) inhabited a region on the southeastern shore of the Baltic Sea, speaking what is called Old Prussian and worshipping pagan deities. Peter of Duisburg, a Teutonic Knight who flourished in the late-13th/early-14th century, wrote in a history of Prussia:

Because they did not know God, therefore, in their error, they worshipped every creature as divine, namely the sun, moon and stars, thunder, birds, even four-legged animals, even the toad. They also had forests, fields and bodies of water, which they held so sacred that they neither chopped wood nor dared to cultivate fields or fish in them. [Chronicon terrae Prussiae III,5 ,53]

This did not suit their Christian neighbors, and several campaigns were undertaken to convert the region. Pope Innocent IV declared, in October 1243, that Prussia was divided into four dioceses (of Culm, Pomesania, Ermeland, and Samland). This was premature, since Prussia had not yet been subdued and converted. Around this time, the major force attempting that conversion was the Teutonic Knights.

The Knights had campaigned from 1238 to 1240. Earlier, in 1233, the Knights and an army of 10,000 made inroads into Prussian territory, building fortresses. Their later campaign, however, had less success: they were slaughtered trying to lay siege to a Prussian fortress. A larger contingent of Knights then arrived at the fortress. The leader of the fortress, worried that they would be overtaken by the Knights, suggested to his people that they should surrender and convert, but his own people killed him. The fortress was captured by the Knights and strengthened to become one of their strongholds. A Prussian attempt to retake the fortress failed.

In 1254, a major Crusade that included King Ottokar II of Bohemia and Rudolph I of Hapsburg contained an army of 60,000 men. They made great progress, conquering lands and building castles, and even cities. Modern Kaliningrad was founded by this Crusade as Königsberg ("King's Mountain"), named in honor of King Ottokar.

Significant Prussian uprisings took place between 1260 and 1274, forcing the Christian occupiers to seek reinforcements from Europe. Crusaders made progress only through killing tribal leaders and forcing conversion on pain of death. Prussians fled to Lithuania or Sudovia; those who stayed lost rights and became serfs.

Attempts to convert Prussians had been attempted centuries earlier, from places as far removed as England, which I'll talk about tomorrow.

Rudolph I

The Second Council of Lyon decided the ending the Interregnum was best done by selecting Rudolph I as King of Germany (and therefore Holy Roman Emperor. The position had been vacant for nearly two decades since there was no individual with sufficient power and backing to rise above other claimants.

Rudolph was born 1 May 1218 to the Hapsburgs, son of Count Albert IV of Habsburg and Hedwig of Kyburg. Albert died when Rudolph was 21, and Rudolph inherited large estates. His power was considered potentially threatening to others around him, and in 1242 Hugh of Tuffenstein antagonized him. Rudolph invaded Hugh's domain, bribed his sentinels, captured Hugh's castle, and killed Hugh.

In 1245, Rudolph married Gertrude of Hohenburg (daughter of the Count of Hohenburg), by whose dowry he received several castles and lands. Over time he received other grants of land from Conrad IV, King of Germany (until 1254).

Rudolph fell afoul of Pope Innocent IV when he invaded the suburbs of Basle and burned down a nunnery in a conflict against the bishop of Basel. Innocent excommunicated him, after which he joined the Prussian Crusade of 1254 with King Ottokar II of Bohemia as penance. (The city of Königsberg (now Kaliningrad, Russia) was founded at that time in Ottokar's honor.)

Ottokar had been excommunicated by Innocent IV himself prior to this. As a second son, he had originally been intended for an ecclesiastical career, but the death of his older brother Vladislaus made him the heir of his father, Wenceslaus I. He had been persuaded before he was even king to rebel against Wenceslaus, even expelling him from Prague Castle temporarily. Father and son were eventually reconciled, and Ottokar became king at his father's death in 1253.

During the Interregnum, Ottokar continued to exercise ambition and did his best to take over other areas, occupying an area of northwest Bohemia, fighting and defeating Hungarians, and making deals to take over other lands. 

When it came to electing a new King of Germany/Holy Roman Emperor, the Second Council of Lyons considered Ottokar to be too violent and unpredictable, compared to Rudolph. (Another claimant, Alfonso X of Castile, had never set foot in Germany.) The pope also never considered ottar to be a legitimate heir to the throne of Bohemia. So Rudolph got the title, and Ottokat was confined to Bohemia.

Rudolph and Ottokar were on the same page at least once, however, during that Prussian crusade. Why there was a Prussian Crusade will be a topic for tomorrow.

The Interregnum

There was more than one period of time called an Interregnum ("between reigns") when a ruler for a specific area was lacking. The Holy Roman Empire had two, one of which was called the Great Interregnum because it was more than a generation (924 - 962 CE). We're going to talk about the adjective-less Interregnum mentioned yesterday, when the Second Council of Lyons appointed Rudolf I to be King of the Romans. To understand the importance of Rudolf's appointment, however, we have to go back before him, to Richard of Cornwall.

Richard of Cornwall (1209 - 2 April 1272) was the second son of King John. When Richard was eight years old, he was made High Sheriff of Berkshire; eight years later he was Count of Poitou, and also made Count of Cornwall as a birthday present from his older brother, King Henry III. As seemed to happen often in English royal families, relatives rebelled against the king, and Richard rebelled three times against Henry.

Skipping a bit (quite a bit, like three wives, rebellions, building a castle at Tintagel, a Crusade, and several legitimate and illegitimate children), we come to 1257, when four of the seven German Electoral Princes (those who had the privilege of choosing the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire) chose him to be King of Germany (see a 1341 illustration of the seven above). There was opposition: three of the electors voted for Alfonso X of Castile (a successful and respected ruler, but one who had never set foot in Germany), who was also supported by King Louis IX "the Saint" of France and Pope Alexander IV. Louis and Alexander were eventually won over by Richard's sister-in-law, Eleanor of Provence, and by Eleanor's sister, Richard's second wife. She was Sanchia of Provence, daughter of Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Provence, and Beatrice of Savoy. Sanchia's and Eleanor's sister Margaret was married to Louis IX.

One of the seven electors was Ottokar II of Bohemia, who voted for Richard, changed his support to Alfonso, then changed his vote to Richard after being bribed, giving Richard the majority. In all, the position cost Richard 28,000 marks to gain support of the four electors needed for a simple majority.

Richard treated the position as honorary. King of Germany at this point was equivalent to Holy Roman Emperor, and also called "King of the Romans." Richard only made four brief visits to Germany, spending most of his time in England, supporting his brother Henry in the Second Barons War. At the Battle of Lewes, he hid in a windmill, but was discovered and imprisoned until September 1265.

In December 1271 he had a stroke that paralyzed his right side and cost him the ability to speak. He died on 2 April 1272 and was buried next to Sanchia at Hailes Abbey, which he founded.

The powerful families in and around Germany had spread and splintered, and no powerful and obvious candidates for King of the Romans stood out. Ottokar II of Bohemia sought the position, as did Rudolf I of Habsburg, but neither prevailed for almost 20 years, until the Second Council of Lyon selected Rudolf.

Tomorrow we'll see if we can figure out why Rudolf was chosen over Ottokar. It will be Christmas Day, but the quest for knowledge doesn't take a holiday.

Second Council of Lyon

When the East-West Schism was over 200 years old, Byzantine Emperor Michael VIII Paleologos (1224 - 1282) asked Pope Gregory X to help reunite the two churches. The result was the Second Council of Lyon, the 14th time the Roman Catholic Church had called an ecumenical council. It was convened on 31 March 1272, and brought together 300 bishops, 60 abbots, and over a thousand other prelates or their representatives. (Even more showed up who were not on the invitation list, and they were asked to depart since it would be impossible to accommodate them all.)

Michael VIII sent an ambassador with members of the Greek Orthodox clergy and representatives of Abaqa Khan, current ruler of the Mongols whom Edward I of England had reached out to a few years earlier in order to promote an alliance. James I of Aragon attended, as did Bonaventure (seen here speaking in front of Pope Gregory by a 17th century Spanish painter, Zurbaran). Thomas Aquinas was invited, but died along the way. Other countries represented were Bohemia, England, France, Germany, Hungary, Norway, Poland, Scotland, Sweden, and a few others.

Meeting for six sessions between May and July, they discussed the conquest of the Holy Land and the unification of the Eastern and Western churches. Some other concerns were paying for a Crusade, excommunication of pirates and those who protected or traded with them (because they interfere with traveling to the Holy Land), and indulgences for those willing to go on Crusade.

The Council confirmed Rudolf I (1 May 1218 – 15 July 1291) as Holy Roman Emperor, ending a 20-year Interregnum.

The ambassador from Abaqa Khan reported that the relations with Europe begun under his father, Hulagu, continued, and that Latin Christians were exempt from taxes in exchange for prayers for the Khan. Hulagu also had committed to returning Jerusalem to the Franks, and Abaqa intended to continue his father's commands.

One of Gregory's "successes" was getting the Eastern Church's representatives to accept the West's addition of Filioque ("and the Son") to the Nicene Creed. This did not satisfy the bishops back home, however. Patriarch Joseph of Constantinople resigned in protest, and after Emperor Michael VIII died, his son and successor Andronicus II rejected the change.

Also, Gregory's hope for a new Crusade petered out after his death in 1276; the taxes gathered were re-distributed in Italy.

Now, about that Interregnum mentioned above...what was the problem? I'll explain that tomorrow.

Purgatory

One of the differences in doctrine between the Western Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches that developed after the start of the East-West Schism was the idea of Purgatory.

When I was much younger, occasionally, when I would complain about the difficulty of a task I was given, I would be told by an adult that, by enduring, "Your time in Purgatory will be short."

From the Latin verb purgo ("to clean, cleanse"), the word "purgatory" starts to be used in the second half of the 12th century to refer to the need for imperfect souls to be cleansed in order to enter Heaven, and gives rise to the idea of a place where this happens. 2 Maccabees 12:46 says "It is therefore a holy and wholesome thought to pray for the dead, that they may be loosed from sins." This suggests that the souls of the dead need further purification that they did not receive in life.

The Second Council of Lyon in 1274 defined its teaching on Purgatory, though didn't state that it was a place:

Because if they die truly repentant in charity before they have made satisfaction by worthy fruits of penance for (sins) committed and omitted, their souls are cleansed after death by purgatorical or purifying punishments…. And to relieve punishments of this kind, the offerings of the living faithful are of advantage to these, namely, the sacrifices of Masses, prayers, alms, and other duties of piety, which have customarily been performed by the faithful for the other faithful according to the regulations of the Church. [line 856]

...and just so we cover all the bases about Heaven and Hell:

However, the souls of those who after having received holy baptism have incurred no stain of sin whatever, ... are received immediately into heaven. [line 857]

The souls of those who die in mortal sin or with original sin only, however, immediately descend to hell, yet to be punished with different punishments. [line 858] 

The dogma of Purgatory was re-affirmed in the Councils of Florence (1443) and Trent (1545-63). People can die in a state of grace but their souls still need some cleansing, and their time in Purgatory could be shortened by the prayers of the living.

Dante of course dedicates a third of the Divine Comedy to Purgatorio, in which we find people constantly praying to work their way into Heaven. His Purgatory (and others) is described as a place of purification, not punishment. (There are depictions, however, of Purgatory as a "mini Hell" where fire and torment are the cleansing method.)

The Orthodox Church rejected the notion of a third location where the souls of the dead could go, but the need for purgation is still part of Orthodox theology. In this case, the imperfect soul goes to Hell, but the prayers of the living can help purify them so that they transition to Heaven. (This is the "punchline" to The Great Divorce by C.S.Lewis: anyone can leave the bleakness of Hell and travel to Heaven, but they have to be prepared to change internally and understand their imperfections.)

Now, about the Second Council of Lyon: a lot of events were connected to it, and it has cropped up before in this blog. I want to pull the separate threads together tomorrow.