Honorius and Conflicts, Part 2

July 1127, William II, Duke of Apulia, died with an heir, and Roger II of Sicily (pictured) raced to the peninsula to take control of Apulia and Calabria.

Roger claimed that William had left him the lands in exchange for a favor Roger had done him. Pope Honorius II, however, claimed that William had deeded his territories to the papacy. Honorius did not want Roger getting a foothold in Italy, and rushed to prevent it.

Roger was already occupying Apulia, and sending gifts to Honorius, asking to be recognized as the rightful ruler of Apulia. Roger knew that the pope desired land as much as anyone, and offered to hand over a couple of locations, one in Campania and one in Apulia itself.

This would have created a unified Norman presence in southern Italy, and Honorius did not want any more northerners around. After all, the events that led to his election as pope involved a fight between Italians and northerners. Some of the smaller Norman rulers in southern Italy were also wary of Roger's power, and did not necessarily want him to Bec one so powerful that he controlled them. They allied themselves with the pope.

Honorius threatened to excommunicate Roger, and then went through with it in November 1127. Roger returned to Sicily, but only to gather reinforcements. Honorius took the time to make an alliance with Robert II, the new prince of Capua, and preached a Crusade against Roger.

Roger returned in May 1128, harassing some papal strongholds but avoiding the papal forces directly until July. Even then, with the armies facing each other across a river, he did not engage, but waited to see if the alliances the pope had would last the staring contest. Turns out some of the others blinked first, deciding to throw their lot in with Roger after all.

Honorius understood that he was losing strength, and sent two advisors to negotiate with Roger. The result was that Honorius would recognize Roger as Duke of Apulia, and Roger would take an oath of faith and homage to the pope. Honorius himself traveled to meet Roger on a bridge in Benevento, establishing peace between the Kingdom of Sicily and the Papal States.

Honorius now had time to turn to some of the other areas that he felt needed correction. He had only the previous year clashed with the abbot of Monte Cassino, one of the most famous Benedictine monasteries. He was about to cash with an abbey that also fell into the category of one of the most famous: Cluny. We'll look into that next time.

Honorius and Conflicts, Part 1

Pope Honorius II (pictured) was aggressive about doing what he felt was right for the Church, which sometimes meant taking to task religious figures and orders. He distrusted the long-standing (established in 529CE) and widespread Benedictines. Although he favored newer orders like the Augustinians and Cistercians, and he formally recognized the new Templars, he felt some Benedictines needed to be disciplined.

This may have stemmed from his dislike of a single man, the abbot of Monte Casino, Oderisio di Sangro. When Honorius was still Lamberto Scannabecchi, the cardinal-bishop of Ostia, he had asked Oderisio for permission for Lamberto's entourage to stay at the church of Santa Maria in Pallara (on the Palatine Hill in Rome; it has since been renamed to San Sebastiano al Palatino). Oderisio refused the request.

In 1125, after Lamberto became pope in a very unorthodox manner, Oderisio refused a request for financial support, and mocked Honorius' peasant origins. Honorius heard that Oderisio was enriching himself instead of improving Monte Cassino, publicly called him a thief and no monk, and summoned Oderisio to Rome. Oderisio refused to come to Rome. In total he refused three papal summons. Honorius deposed him as abbot in 1126.

Oderisio ignored the decision and continued acting as abbot, so Honorius excommunicated him. Oderisio ignored the excommunication, and fortified the monastery because he knew what was coming: papal soldiers. The townspeople of Cassino took matters into their own hands, choosing to side with their pope, and forced their way into the monastery and Oderisio out of office. The monks elected as abbot the dean of the monastery, Niccolo.

Honorius was not satisfied with this. He declared Niccolo's election improper (he was one to talk), and appointed another person to run Monte Cassino, which angered the monks. Supporters of Oderisio and Niccolo fought each other. Eventually Honorius managed to get Oderisio to step down. He excommunicated Niccolo to keep him out of the way. Honorius appointed the provost of a monastery at Capua, Seniorectus, to be abbot of Monte Cassino in September 1127. He also asked the monks to swear an oath of loyalty to the papacy, but that was a step too far for them.

With Monte Cassino settled down, Honorius had another conflict he just had to get himself involved in that cropped up a few months before the installation of Seniorectus. South of Monte Cassino, the Duke of Apulia died with no heir, and there was a scramble to occupy Apulia and Calabria. The man who tried to take over was about to run into papal problems. We'll see who won that conflict tomorrow.

Pope Honorius II

After his atypical election in December 1124, Pope Honorius II got to work clashing with Holy Roman Emperor Henry V over Henry's claim to territory in Italy. Henry said that Matilda of Tuscany had left her lands to him. Henry began appointing his own vicars throughout the area in opposition to what the papacy and the towns wanted, completely ignoring the terms of the Concordat of Worms that left investing clerics to the Church rather than secular authority.

Fortunately for the papacy, Henry V died on 23 May 1125, but a new conflict arose. Henry left no heir and nominated his nephew, Duke of Swabia Frederick Hohenstaufen as the next emperor. The papacy did not want an expansion of Hohenstaufen power, however.

The clerics chose another, Lothair of Supplinburg, Duke of Saxony, as the next Holy Roman Emperor. Lothair wrote to Honorius requesting the pope's confirmation, an act of obedience to papal authority that pleased Honorius. One of Lothair's advisors was Norbert of Xanten, founder of the Premonstratensian Order (also called Norbertines).

Honorius also had to deal with barons in southern Italy who were harassing farmers and travelers. The papal armies had to take over several towns to suppress and arrest barons, laying siege to their castles, etc. 

The illustration shows him formally accepting the new order called the Templars, in 1128. There were other religious groups and figures whom he felt needed correction, however, so he turned his attention from dealing with secular authorities to various religious figures and groups. I'll tell you about them tomorrow.

The Election of Pope Honorius II

Lamberto Scannabecchi was born on 9 February 1060 in a rural community. He entered the priesthood and became the archdeacon of Bologna. He gained the attention of Pope Urban II who named him a cardinal in 1099. Urban's successor, Pope Paschal II, made Lamberto cardinal bishop of Ostia in 1117. (Cardinal bishops are senior members of the Church who advise the pope.)

When Pope Gelasius II was driven from Rome in 1118 by Holy Roman Emperor Henry V, Lamberto accompanied him and was even with Gelasius at his deathbed. Lamberto was part of the group that elected Pope Calixtus II, becoming his close advisor.

Lamberto was sent to Henry V as papal legate to argue against the emperor's right to the Investiture of prelates. The Concordat of Worms (see illustration) in 1122—the agreement between the Catholic Church and the Holy Roman Empire that bishops and abbots would be appointed by the Church and not the secular authority—owes its result to the efforts of Cardinal Lamberto.

Urban and Paschal had expanded the number of Italian cardinals. Calixtus (originally Guy of Burgundy) had also named several cardinals, mostly French and Burgundian. The two groups did not trust each other. Each group turned to Roman noble families for support.

The Italian cardinals found it with the Pierleoni family who had gained a reputation as protectors of the popes. Urban II had died in a Pierleoni manor. The northern group found support from the Frangipani family. Upon Calixtus' death (13 December 1124), the two families agreed that an election should happen in three days, which was canon law. The Frangipani wanted Lamberto as their candidate, but the local people wanted Theobaldo Boccapecci, the Cardinal-Priest of Sant'Anastasia.

The election took place, and the majority vote went to Theobaldo. He chose the name Celestine II, but just as he was donning the papal red mantle and Te deum was being sung to start his investiture, Frangipani supporters burst into the chamber, attacked and wounded Theobaldo, and declared Lamberto as Pope Honorius II.

Theobaldo was willing to resign, but the Pierleoni clan would not accept Lamberto as pope. Days of debate, fighting, and attempts to bribe supporters followed. Eventually the supporters of Celestine accepted his willingness to resign, leaving Lamberto as the only claimant.

Honorius, in what may have been a planned bit of theater to smooth things over with the city, resigned the position because of the inappropriate manner in which he became pope. He was immediately elected unanimously by the assembled cardinals and invested on 21 December 1124.

What kind of pope was he? We'll find out tomorrow.

The Premonstratensians

Arguably one of the longest names for a Holy Order, the name comes from The Order of Canons Regular of Prémontré, called so because the Order was found in 1120 in Prémontré near Laon by Norbert of Xanten. They were also known as Norbertines and White Canons.

Norbert was a friend of Bernard of Clairvaux, who favored very strict rules for monasteries. In Prémontré Norbert established a monastery with 13 companions, essentially following the Rule of St. Augustine but adding new rules promoting even greater austerity.

The order was formally approved by Pope Honorius II and grew quickly: by 1126 there were nine houses. In 1143 the Order reached England, and were soon in Scotland where they had the support of the dynasty of Fergus of Galloway.

The first Premonstratensian saint was Evermode of Ratzeburg (died 1178), a companion of Norbert and the Bishop of Ratzeburg. His lifelong goal was the Christianization of the Wends, Slavs inhabiting what is now northeastern Germany. Another was Frederick of Hallum (died 1175), known for intense piety throughout his life and for miracles taking place at his tomb after his death. Ludolph of Ratzeburg (died 1250) disagreed with and was imprisoned and beaten by Duke Albert I of Saxony, dying because of his treatment. There is a legend that a soldier with an arrowhead embedded in his head was able to remove the arrow and survive only after praying to Ludolph.

The Dissolution of the Monasteries by Henry VIII was the first big blow to the success of the Order, which had 35 houses in England at the time. The Reformation and the French Revolution were also difficult times for them. By the 19th century they were almost extinct as an Order, with a few houses existing in Germany. 

In 1893, some Norbertines from Germany came to the United States to minister to Belgian immigrants in Wisconsin, starting the first Premonstratensian abbey in the New World. By the start of the 20th century, however, there were 20 monasteries. Today there are almost 100 monasteries, including abbeys for women, around the world.

The Order was sanctioned by Pope Honorius II, whose name has been woven throughout this blog. Tomorrow I'll give him his own entry. See you then.

The Milevsko Nail

In the Czech Republic is the town of Milevsko, first mentioned in records in 1184, placed at the intersection of two important trade routes. In 1187 a Premonstratensian monastery was built there. The monastery was burned down in 1420 by Hussites, a Czech Christian movement influenced by John Wycliffe and reformer Jan Hus.

The monastery was rebuilt in 1581 as a manor house, but returned to the Premonstratensians as a monastery in 1622.

In the summer of 2020, beneath the monastery's St. Giles Church, a secret cavity was discovered. One theory is that the space was used to protect treasures from the impending attack by the Hussite soldiers. One researcher states that the Hussites destroyed church records, so knowledge of the secret cache was lost over time.

In the space was a wooden box decorated with a gold cross and the letters "IR" signifying "Iesus Rex," "Jesus King." Radiocarbon dating and an examination of the box reveals that it was made from larch wood grown in Israel between 1290 and 1394CE. The lid of the box as made of oak that was dated to between 260 and 416CE.

Inside the box was a six-centimeter iron nail. The assumption is that it was one of the Holy Nails used to crucify Jesus. There is a Celebration of the Holy Nail every 13 September where it can be seen in its new setting, the cross seen above in the illustration.

That ends for now our exploration of the Arma Christi and Holy Nails. Next we're going to find out what Premonstratensians are all about.

The Holy Nails

The Catholic Encyclopedia says "The question has long been debated whether Christ was crucified with three or with four nails." [link] Given how many can be found around the world, maybe it was more.

Depictions of the Crucifixion in the 13th century started routinely showing three nails (prior to that, and in the opinion of several Church Fathers, there was one in each foot): one through the overlapping feet and one each in the hand (biologically more appropriate would be in the wrist: the bones of the hand could not support the weight of a body). 

Shortly after converting to Christianity and becoming caesar and emperor, Constantine sent his mother, the Empress (later saint) Helena to find the Cross and the Nails used in the Crucifixion. According to the 5th-century author of an ecclesiastical history, Socrates of Constantinople, she was led to the site of what she was seeking by a Jew named Judas Cyriacus.

The nails went in different directions. Socrates said one was made into a bridle used by Constantine, and there are many other locations that claim to have nails. There is a bridle in the cathedral in Carpentras, in Provence that is said to have a nail in it. The Cathedral of Milan also has a bridle that is said to have a nail in it.

The Basilica of Santa Croce in Jerusalem, a church in Rome, has a spike that is supposed to be one.

One was pounded into a thin band and incorporated into the Iron Crown of Lombardy. As it turns out, the band that was supposed to be the nail is made of almost pure silver. Ironically, there is no iron in the "Iron Crown."

The treasury of Trier Cathedral was sent one (see illustration) from Helena, to (supposedly) commemorate her birthplace.

Bamberg Cathedral (Germany) claims to have part of one nail.

The monastery of San Nicolò l'Arena in Catania (Sicily) has the head of a nail.

The German imperial regalia in the Homburg Palace in Vienna has a nail incorporated into a Lance which is also the Spear of Longinus.

Then, in 2020, a piece of a Holy Nail was found in the Czech Republic. I'll tell you that story tomorrow.

Arma Christi

The "Arms of Christ" refers to the collection of items that are linked to Jesus, relics that exist all over the world and are preserved and venerated as links to him. The quest of St. Helena to find the True Cross was merely the beginning, as people realized the strong desire to see and touch and own items that once touched Jesus or were in his orbit, as it were.

Yesterday we talked about the Holy Sponge and Spear of Longinus. Previously we talked about the Holy Grail, the cup used in the Last Supper. Long ago I told you about Veronica's Veil and, more recently, the Shroud of Turin.

People wanted more, however, and enterprising folk of the past were ready to deliver. There is even a Middle English poem, "Arma Christi," that lists the items. Here are some:

The Crown of Thorns exists in Notre Dame de Paris; it was saved during the 2019 fire and restored to its place in December 2024. Separate thorns are found in other locations.

In Rome, in the Church of Santa Croce in Jerusalem, is the Titulus Crucis, the piece of wood nailed to the top of the Cross with the title Iesus Nazarenus Rex Iudaeorum ("Jesus the Nazarene King of the Jews"); the story is found in the Gospel of John. Radiocarbon dating gives a creation date between 980 and 1146CE.

The Holy Tunic, or Seamless robe of Jesus, is said in the Gospel of John to have been gambled on by the Roman soldiers; it was desirable because it was made from a single piece of cloth. Legend says it was found by Helena, who sent it to the city of Trier. Trier does display occasionally a robe whose provenance does not go back prior to the 12th century. It is impossible to carbon date because it was dipped in a rubber solution in the 19th century to preserve it.

The illustration above shows some of the instruments. Note the ladder used for the Descent from the Cross, when they lowered Jesus' body after his death. You may also note the ropes that were used to raise the Cross once Jesus had been put on it. Helena also found the nails used for the Crucifixion. You'll be surprised at how many nails there were once I tell you about where they all are. But that's tomorrow's post. See you then.

The Holy Sponge

In 600 CE, the Patriarch of Jerusalem Sophronius visited the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, a 4th-century church in Jerusalem supposedly built on the site where Jesus was crucified. In an upper room Sophronius observed a few objects that inspired verses:

And let me go rejoicing
to the splendid sanctuary, the place
where the noble Empress Helena
found the divine Wood; 

and go up,
my heart overcome with awe,
and see the Upper Room,
the Reed, the Sponge, and the Lance.

The "divine Wood" found by the Empress Helena we know, because we've talked about the True Cross and Empress Helena's finding of it.

There were other relics there: "the Reed, the Sponge, and the Lance."

The Lance refers to the Spear of Longinus, the spear a Roman soldier jabbed into the side of the crucified Jesus mentioned only in the Gospel of John. There are, in fact, four known relics that claim to be the Spear/Lance of Longinus, in Rome, Vienna, Vagharshapat (in Armenia), and Antioch. Supposedly, one was even in the possession of the devout King Æthelstan of England.

The Reed was placed in the tortured Jesus' hands as a scepter, mocking him as King of the Jews.

The Holy Sponge and Holy Lance were brought by Nicetas, a cousin of Eastern Emperor Heraclius (610-641), to Constantinople from Palestine in 612. Latin Emperor Baldwin II sold the Sponge to King Louis IX of France. 

Byzantine Emperor Manuel II Paleologos made a gift of a sponge to Pope Boniface IX, along with a piece of Jesus' tunic (not sure where he got that). The Basilica of Santa Croce in Jerusalem is a church in Rome, built to house relics of the Passion of Christ, such as the True Cross. In it you will find a brown sponge.

Pieces of sponge also reside at the Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore, the Basilica di Santa Maria in Trastevere, St. Mary in Campitelli in Rome, and the Basilica di San Giovanni in Laterano in Rome. The church of St. Jacques de Compiègne in France and in the cathedral in Aachen where a piece owned by Charlemagne is displayed.

The items mentioned here are part of the Arma Christi, the "Arms of Christ," the Instruments of the Passion of Christ. There are many more...many more. I'll let you know about some tomorrow.

Paleologos in Europe

Seeking aid against the fear of a complete Ottoman takeover of the Byzantine Empire (currently a vassal state under Turkish Emperor Bayezid I), Manuel II Paleologos went to Europe personally to meet with Western kings. He set sail on 10 December 1399, stopping in the Peloponnese to leave his wife and children in the care of his brother.

He was in Venice in April 1400, then overland to Milan where he met with Duke Gian Galeazzo Visconti, son of the man whose daughter married Lionel of Antwerp (Chaucer was in the embassy that arranged it).

There was another man in Milan whom Manuel knew: his close friend and ambassador to Italy, Manuel Chrysolaros. Chrysolaros had been there for a few years and well-respected as a scholar and a source of knowledge about Greek culture.

Manuel II then went to Charenton in northern France where he met with King Charles VI on 3 June. Michel Pintoin (c.1350 - c.1421), the "Chronicler of St.-Denis," recorded their meeting:

Then, the king raised his hat, and the emperor raised his imperial cap – he had no hat – and both greeted one another in the most honourable way. When he had welcomed [the emperor], the king accompanied him into Paris, riding side by side. They were followed by the Princes of the Blood who, once the banquet in the royal palace finished, escorted [the emperor] to the lodgings which had been prepared for him in the Louvre castle.

Manuel spent summer and fall in France, leaving in December for England. His earlier entreaties for aid had been rebuffed by Richard II of England due to internal struggles, but those struggles ended when Henry IV became king. (The illustration shows the two meeting.) The meeting between Henry and Manuel—the first and only presence of a Byzantine Emperor in England—was recorded by contemporary writer Thomas Walsingham:

At the same time the Emperor of Constantinople visited England to ask for help against the Turks. The king with an imposing retinue, met him at Blackheath on the feast of St Thomas [21 December], gave so great a hero an appropriate welcome and escorted him to London. He entertained him there royally for many days, paying the expenses of the emperor's stay, and by grand presents showing respect for a person of such eminence.

Manuel received £2000 (the receipt exists) from Henry. A joust was held in his honor in February 1401. The emperor wrote to his friend in Milan, Manuel Chrysolaros, about Henry's hospitality:

A large number of letters have come to us from all over bearing excellent and wonderful promises, but most important is the ruler with whom we are now staying, the king of Britain the Great, of a second civilized world, you might say, who abounds in so many good qualities and is adorned with all sorts of virtues.

...

And now, in accord with his nature, he has made himself a virtual haven for us in the midst of a twofold tempest, that of the season and that of fortune, and we have found refuge in the man himself and his character.

Manuel II also gifted Western Europe with treasures from Constantinople. A piece of the tunic of Christ was sent to Pope Boniface IX, along with the Holy Sponge.

Ultimately, Manuel's efforts did not bear fruit. Bayezid was defeated by Tamerlane, the Turco-Mongol warrior who was expanding his own base. Constantinople would eventually fall to the Turks in 1453, a couple decades after Manuel's death.

But let's talk about that Holy Sponge, and maybe some of the other relics of Christ's life that were important objects throughout the Middle Ages.

Manuel II Paleologos

Manuel II Paleologos was the son of the beleaguered John V Paleologos. At that point in time, the Byzantine Empire was a vassal state of the Ottomans, and John and his successor, Manuel, sought aid from the West against a feared complete takeover by the Turks.

When John died in 1391, Manuel had in fact been at the Ottoman court. News of the death prompted him to rush to Constantinople to secure the succession, fearing Manuel's nephew, John VII. John had rebelled earlier and taken Constantinople from John V. Although later defeated with the help of the Ottomans and the Knights Hospitaller, he never gave up his claim.

Manuel was crowned in 1392 as well as married to Helena Dragaš, the daughter of another Ottoman vassal, the Serbian Konstantin Dejanović. Manuel was left to manage the Byzantine Empire as he saw fit, but a rebellion in Bulgaria (also under Ottoman control) made the Ottoman Emperor Bayezid I paranoid about his territories and determined to "lock them down" to prevent unrest.

Bayezid invited all his Christian vassals, like Manuel and Konstantin, to Serres in Macedonia in order to execute them and strike fear into their successors. He changed his mind, but the vassals became aware of his intention. Manuel looked for Western aid for protection, and sent 10 ships to aid in a Crusade by Sigismund of Luxemburg against the Ottomans. Sigismund was defeated at the Battle of Nicopolis.

Manuel sent his uncle, Theodore Kantakouzenos, to Charles VI of France to request military aid, then to Richard II of England. Richard had internal troubles, but Charles sent the Marshal of France and six ships with 1200 men to guard Constantinople. The Marshal, Jean II Le Maingre, advised Manuel to go himself to meet with the heads of Western Europe.

Manuel sailed to the Peloponnese, where he left his wife and children in the care of his brother Theodore I Paleologos, then sailed to Europe where he was greeted and hosted by several kings. Those historic events were recorded, and we'll talk about his itinerary tomorrow.

The Holy Monastery

One of the oldest monasteries in the Peloponnese, the Agia Lavra (Greek: literally "Holy Monastery") was built in 961. It is on Chelmos (also Helmos) Mountain, 961 meters above sea level. Chelmos is also home to the mountain village of Kalavryta.

Kalavryta was the seat of the Barony of Kalavryta in the later Middle Ages (established c.1209), of which very little is known except through some Venetian records and the 14th century Chronicle of Morea, a Greek poem of 9000 lines that narrates the Western European conquest of Morea (the Peloponnese) after of the shameful actions of the Fourth Crusade.

The monastery was destroyed more than once in the post-Medieval period, by Turks in 1585, by the Egyptian army of Ibrahim Pasha in 1826, and in 1943 by German troops. It survives, however, and has a museum as well as an opportunity for monastic living. The monastery celebrates the Dormition of Mary on 15 August.

The museum has many items, including an 11th-century Gospel, gold-embroidered vestments from the 1500s, patriarchal seals, and saints' relics, including part of the skull of St. Alexius. You can read about St. Alexius here and here. He was a wealthy Roman citizen in the 4th century who gave up everything to live as a hermit, presumably in Greece, before returning to Rome to live unrecognized in his family's home. Alexius is considered the patron saint of the town of Kalavryta.

The part of Alexius' skull at the monastery was given to them in 1398 by Manuel II Paleologos, Byzantine Emperor from 1391 to 1425. Where he got it, since Alexius returned to Rome and died there many years later, no one can tell. Manuel offered many relics to different groups during his long reign. I think we should look into some goings on in Constantinople next.

St. Alexius in Rome

Alexius was a 4th-century son of a wealthy family who married well and had riches, but right after his wedding decided he wanted to give away all his wealth and live in poverty and complete obscurity. His plan didn't turn out exactly as he wished. I gave more details in this post.

The story of Alexius was not well known in the West—it was around more in the East although he was called a native of Rome—but there is a place in Rome now that remembers him. Physically changed by his years of poverty, he lived under the stairs of his parents' home for many years until his death. Legend tells us this was on the Aventine Hill in Rome.

The church of Saint Boniface has been on the Aventine Hill since the 8th century. Pope Benedict VII in 972 gave it over to Sergius of Damascus, a Greek metropolitan who had been living in Rome since being exiled. Next to the church, Sergius built a monastery for Greek and Roman monks who wished to live in strict poverty. It was Sergius who brought the story of Alexius to Rome. Sergius changed the name of the Church to include Alexius, and he created the legend that the holy man's family home was on this site.

Today, if you enter the Basilica of Saint Boniface and Alexius, on the left side there is a house, the "house of Alexius' family." In it you will see stairs called the Holy Steps, below which there is an altar. The altar is where Alexius lived for 17 years. If you look at the illustration, you can assume the area is a little more elaborate than it would have been in the 4th or 10th centuries.

He is the patron saint of beggars, nurses, pilgrims, travelers, and the town of Kalavryta in Greece, where there is a monastery called Agia Lavra ("Holy Monastery") that is his major shrine. Why Kalavryta? I'm trying to work that out. Once I've done some research, I'll get back to you.

See you tomorrow.

The Crescentii

Yesterday I talked about the end of Crescentius II at the hands of Otto III, because he caused too much trouble in Rome even after having been pardoned for earlier offenses. His family had been a force in Rome for awhile. He was often called "the Younger" and his father called "Crescentius the Elder." The family was the same that started with Theophylact I.

The Elder Crescentius saw an opportunity to become more prominent in Rome after the Carolingian dynasty lost power through their own fraternal wars between Charlemagne's grandsons. Crescentius was around during the time of Otto I when a synod removed Pope John XII. Pope John XIII was Crescentius' brother, which helped support the Elder's grasp on Roman politics.

But when John XIII died and Otto I designated a successor (Benedict VI), Romans resented the outside interference from the emperor. When Otto II became emperor and was involved in foreign wars, the Romans under Crescentius took over, imprisoning Benedict VI into the Castel Sant'Angelo, where he was killed in 974.

The Romans then chose Boniface VII, against the advice of the emperor's envoy. When members of the imperial faction reasserted their authority, Boniface fled Rome, going to Constantinople and being replaced by Benedict VII, who was then succeeded by John XIV.

When Otto II died, Boniface returned from Constantinople in 984, supported by Crescentii the Younger. Pope John XIV was imprisoned in the Castel Sant'Angelo and died four months later. Otto III eventually (and brutally) dealt with the matter of who controlled Rome and the papacy.

By this time, however, Crescentius the Elder had changed his lifestyle. He chose to join the monastery of St. Alexius on the Aventine Hill in Rome, taking up monastic habit and dropping out of public life.

Now, Alexius was a 4th-century saint who has been mentioned before, but the monastery was only a few years old. I'll tell you a little more tomorrow.

Crescentius the Younger

After Otto III's coronation, he and Pope Gregory V (his cousin Bruno) summoned all the Roman nobility who had created such difficulties for the previous pope, John XV. While Otto declared exile for them, Pope Gregory requested mercy. The leader of these Romans, who had styled himself Patrician, was Crescentius II. Instead of banishment, Crescentius was allowed to remain in Rome.

Crescentius was not chastened. A few months after Otto had returned to Germany, Crescentius started trouble. Romans did not like their new German pope, or the foreigners that had been placed in administrative positions in Rome by the emperor. The resulting rebellion caused Gregory to flee to Pavia.

In Pavia, Gregory called a synod and declared Crescentius an excommunicate. Crescentius did not care. He chose the Bishop of Piacenza, Johannes Philagathos, who had recently returned from Constantinople, to be pope. Johannes became the antipope John XVI.

Otto marched back to Rome in February 998 with Gregory. The antipope fled, but was soon caught. He was sent to the monastery of Fulda in Germany, but only after his nose and ears were cut off and his eyes and tongue ripped out. He died in 1001.

Crescentius barricaded himself in the Castel Sant'Angelo (pictured above) where he was safe until the castle was taken in April. After execution, his corpse was hanged on one of the hills northwest of Rome, the Monte Mario.

Yesterday's post shared a theory that Otto's death was caused by Crescentius' widow, Stephania. A 1906 historical work has this passage:

Stephania, his widow, concealing her affliction and her resentment for the insults to which she had been exposed, secretly resolved to revenge her husband and herself. On the return of Otho from a pilgrimage to Mount Gargano, which, perhaps, a feeling of remorse had induced him to undertake, she found means to be introduced to him, and to gain his confidence; and a poison administered by her was soon afterwards the cause of his painful death. [Sismondi, History of the Italian Republics, vol. i]

Why was Crescentius so determined to ignore the will of the emperor and try to rule Rome? Turns out it was a family trait. I'll explain next time.

Otto III's Coronation

The latest scion of the Crescentius family was lording it over Rome and dominating the pope, John XV, who had been forced to flee Rome. Otto III needed a pope to confirm him as Holy Roman Emperor, and he was just recently old enough to step out of the regency period overseen by his mother and grandmother.

He assembled an army to march toward Rome. Stopping in Verona he formed a good relationship with the future Doge of Venice (also named Otto), which helped make relations with Venice better than they had been under Otto's father. Stopping in Pavia at Easter 996, he was formally declared King of Italy and crowned with the Iron Crown of Lombardy.

Before he reached Rome, Crescentius decided he should make peace with the about-to-be-crowned emperor. Pope John XV died before Otto reached Rome. Otto nominated his chaplain, Bruno of Carinthia, who happened to be Otto's cousin (Otto I was the grandfather of both men). He sent Bruno to Rome (Otto was still in Ravenna) with Archbishop Willigis. Crescentius, fearing potential retribution, locked himself away in the Tomb of Hadrian, also known as the Castel Sant'Angelo.

Bruno was confirmed and took the papal regnal name of Gregory V. He crowned Otto as Holy Roman Emperor on 21 May 996 at St. Peter's Basilica (the crown itself shown above). Emperor and pope held a synod a few days later. The Roman nobles that had imprisoned John XV were summoned and banished for their actions, including Crescentius. The new pope, however, did not want to start his reign making enemies; he pleaded for mercy from the emperor. Many were pardoned, and Crescentius was allowed to live in Rome, but he was stripped of the self-given title Patrician of the Romans.

Otto then sent out to restore the glory of the Roman Empire, but he only had six years to do it before his death in January 1002 of a sudden fever while traveling to Rome again to quell unrest against his rule. Malaria was one theory about his illness. Another theory at the time was that the widow of Crescentius had seduced Otto and then poisoned him.

Crescentius? Why would there be hostility from his widow toward Otto? Crescentius was pardoned and lived out his life peacefully in Rome, right? If only that were true. Crescentius continued to cause trouble. I'll go into that tomorrow.

Otto III's Regency, Part 3

After the death of his mother, Holy Roman Empress Theophanu, the responsibility for the regency of Otto III (still only 11 years old) passed to his grandmother, Holy Roman Empress Adelaide. Each of these women had been heavily involved in her husband's administration and was quite capable of managing important affairs.

Adelaide helped govern during the 992 war between Bohemia and Poland, in which the Ottonian regime supported Poland.

Her regency lasted only a few years, since in 994 Otto turned 14. In September of that year he was granted the right to govern Germany without the need of a regent. A letter from Otto to his grandmother suggests that she was happy to give up the responsibility:

According to your wishes and desires, the divinity has conferred the rights of an empire on us with a happy outcome.

Otto now became King of Italy as well as King of Germany, but was not yet crowned Holy Roman Emperor. That was coming soon.

At this point, Adelaide was active in charity work, founding and restoring monasteries and churches. A nunnery she had founded in 991 was her final residence, retiring there when Otto no longer needed her at court. She died there on 16 December 999 and was buried in the abbey. Pope Urban II canonized her in 1097 for her service to the Church.

On his own now, Otto faced and put down a Slavic rebellion. He then had trouble in Italy; he mounted an expedition to support Pope John XIV (a Lombard who had been Otto's father's chancellor), but was being beset by a Roman faction who wanted their own Italian pope put in place. A leader of the Roman aristocracy, Crescentius II, was calling himself Patrician of the Romans and trying to rule the place. They imprisoned John XIV in the Tomb of Hadrian and put antipope Boniface VII in his place. (The clan of the Crescentii figured largely in papal positions for several generations.)

Pope John XIV died in his prison. When Boniface VII died, Pope John XV succeeded him, but Crescentius had too much influence over him to satisfy Otto. John XV actually fled Rome to get away from Crescentius. Otto's goal was to restore proper order as well as the pope. This would be the greatest challenge of his reign, and I'll tell you about it tomorrow.

Otto III's Regency, Part 2

 

We are continuing from here, after a detour through the Great Gandersheim Conflict.

Otto was only a few years old in 983 when he became King of Germany upon his father's death, so his mother was named regent (after a conflict with Henry the Quarrelsome). Because Otto's father was also Holy Roman Emperor and his mother, Theophanu, was Holy Roman Empress, she became regent until her death in 991.

The regency period was relatively peaceful. Theophanu had been heavily involved in administration alongside her husband, so she was ready to manage things for her son. One of her acts was to negotiate a treaty with the King of Sweden, Eric the Victorious. She set up diplomatic relations with Vladimir I of Kyiv, and with the Duke of Poland Mieszko I.

Because the Byzantine culture included a close working relationship between emperor and patriarch, she cultivated a relationship with the pope. She brought other parts of Byzantine culture: not only physical style in jewelry, furniture, and clothing, but also eating habits and legal procedures.

There were military actions under her regency. In 987 she went with the army to assist the Prince-Bishop Notker of Liège (he was a Benedictine monk who had been chaplain to Theophanu's father-in-law, Holy Roman Emperor Otto I and received a countship) against Odo I, Count of Blois.

Theophanu developed an illness in 988 that lingered until her death in 991. Her sarcophagus (seen here), is in the Church of St. Pantaleon in Cologne. The contemporary chronicler Thietmar of Cologne wrote of her:

Though she was of the weak sex she possessed moderation, trustworthiness, and good manners. In this way she protected with male vigilance the royal power for her son, friendly with all those who were honest, but with terrifying superiority against rebels.

Otto was still a child, and so the regency passed to the other family member who was also a Holy Roman Empress, his paternal grandmother, Adelaide of Italy. She would see him through adulthood, as we will see next time.

The Gandersheim Conflict, Part 2

The Archbishop of Mainz and the Bishop of Hildesheim each wanted jurisdiction over the wealthy Gandersheim Abbey. This conflict reached a peak of pettiness when the abbey was to be reconsecrated on 14 September 1000 after being rebuilt due to a fire years earlier.

Archbishop of Mainz Willigis had postponed the consecration by a week after Bishop of Hildesheim Bernward had already received an invitation. Willigis knew that Bernward would be tied up in other court matters a week later. When Bernward showed up on the 14th, thinking he was going to take part in the ceremony and yet finding no preparations made, he decided to perform a Mass anyway. He publicly preached against the acting abbess, Sophia (who favored Willigis), which caused a riot.

On the 21st, Willigis appeared for the consecration and made a point of Bernward's absence, calling it a breach of duty and demanding that he appear the next day or Willigis would consecrate the abbey alone. Bernard had already planned for this: he sent Bishop of Schleswig Ekkehard to take his place at Gandersheim, a solution supported by canon law. Although Bernward would have preferred being at Gandersheim himself, he was able to avoid giving Willigis the sole spotlight and the opportunity to criticize Bernard for his absence.

Willigis convened a synod at Gandersheim to deal with the rights of Gandersheim once and for all, but Bernward was already on his way to Rome to appeal to Pope Sylvester II and Emperor Otto III (Sophia's nephew). Bernward reached Rome on 4 January, A representative from Ekkehard with details of the incident at Gandersheim arrived on the 7th.

Although Willigis was an important member of the court from the time of Otto's father, Bernward had familiarity on his side: Bernward and Sylvester (Gerbert of Aurillac prior to becoming pope) were tutors to Otto III in his youth. A papal letter dated 13 January was sent to Willigis to demand he hand off the rights to Gandersheim to the bishops of Hildesheim.

Willigis and Sophia still opposed Bernward. Another synod in June held by a papal legate was disrupted when armed men loyal to Willigis prevented the reading aloud of the papal letter transferring rights. Willigis tried to invite Bernward to a meeting in August, but Bernward claimed (and perhaps was) ill and sent Ekkehard and the German historian Thangmar as his representatives. Willigis did not believe the story of illness. Otto called for another meeting in December, postponed until 6 January 1002 because of weather, and then cancelled when Otto died on 23 January.

Otto's successor was Henry II ("the Saint"), son of Henry the Quarrelsome who had caused much trouble years earlier for Otto and the kingdom. A man in his 30s who needed no regent and had his own mind, he called both bishops to a meeting in 1006 at which he declared the conflict over and gave Bernward the task to finally plan the consecration ceremony. During the ceremony, Henry (who attended) officially declared that Gandersheim Abbey was to be in the hands of the bishops of Hildesheim. Willigis was allowed to participate in the consecration.

Fifteen years later the conflict arose again, but I really want to get back to the regency of Otto III before we forget. We'll resume how things were going with Otto's mother and paternal grandmother. See you tomorrow.

The Gandersheim Conflict, Part 1

A significant controversy during the reign of Holy Roman Emperor Otto III while he was still under the regency of his mother, Theophanu, was the conflict over Gandersheim Abbey in 987. Gandersheim in Lower Saxony had been founded not long before but had been richly endowed with relics of Popes Anastasius I and Innocent I. It housed secular canonesses. Its original location put it under the jurisdiction of the bishops of Hildesheim.

The controversy arose when Sophia, a daughter of Otto II and therefore Otto III's aunt, wanted to become invested as a canoness there. Because she was from a royal family, she did not want the ceremony to be facilitated by the bishop of Hildesheim, Osdag. She preferred the Archbishop of Mainz, Willigis, who was also chancellor of Germany.

Willigis decided this was an opportunity to claim jurisdiction over Gandersheim for Mainz. Technically, the abbey had been founded in the territory of Hildesheim, but had moved to Gandersheim which was across the border and inside the archdiocese of Mainz.

Theophanu mediated between the two and the disagreement was settled by having both Willigis and Osdag perform the investiture of Sophia. But the issue was not over.

The young Otto III was being tutored by Bernward of Hildesheim. In 993, Bernward became Bishop Bernward of Hildesheim. Everyone seemed on friendly terms, but according to one historian, Thangmar, Sophia was not friendly to the bishops of Hildesheim, even when Bernward succeeded Osdag. She had her fellow canonesses treat him coldly when he visited the abbey. When Pope Sylvester II (who, as Gerbert of Aurillac had been Otto's other tutor) gave his old colleague Bernward authority over Gandersheim, Bernward was blocked from entering the abbey by soldiers who were organized by Sophia.

A fire in 973 had destroyed part of the abbey. It was supposed to be reconsecrated on 14 September 1000, and Sophia, acting in place of the seriously ill abbess, asked Archbishop Willigis to perform the ceremony. The date was set and announced, Bernward was invited, and on 14 September Bernward showed up, thinking he would reconsecrate the abbey. Willigis, however, had postponed the date until a week later when he knew Bernward would be otherwise occupied at court. Bernward, therefore, found no preparations ready for the ceremony.

Bernward celebrated a Mass there anyway and publicly blamed Sophia for not being able to consecrate the abbey. The Mass turned into a riot. One week later, he got his revenge on Willigis and the plan to exclude him. I'll tell you the rest next time.