Escorting a Princess

Arghun Khan (1258 - 1291) was the son of Abaqa Khan and ruler of the Ilkhanate, in the southwestern part of the Mongol Empire. Arghun (shown here with one of his brides) wanted a new bride after the death of his favorite, Bolgana (who had also been his father's consort), and he asked his great-uncle Kublai Khan to provide him with one.

Kublai chose the 17-year-old Kököchin, of the Chinese Yuan dynasty. Her escort to the Ilkhanate included three of Kublai's envoys and a young Venetian named Marco Polo. Marco, along with his uncles, had been "guests" of Kublai for many years. Kublai did not want to lose the company of his foreign guests, but his envoys insisted. In the words of Marco Polo from his account:

The overland road from Peking to Tabriz was not only of portentous length for such a tender charge, but was imperiled by war, so the envoys desired to return by sea. Tartars in general were strangers to all navigation; and the envoys, much taken with the Venetians, and eager to profit by their experience, especially as Marco had just then returned from his Indian mission, begged the Khan as a favour to send the three Firinghis* in their company. He consented with reluctance, but, having done so, fitted the party out nobly for the voyage, charging the Polos with friendly messages for the potentates of Europe, including the King of England.

There were problems on the voyage

involving long detentions on the coast of Sumatra, and in the South of India, ...; and two years or upwards passed before they arrived at their destination in Persia. The three hardy Venetians survived all perils, and so did the lady, who had come to look on them with filial regard; but two of the three envoys, and a vast proportion of the suite, had perished by the way.

Not only had some of the escorts died along the way, but so had Arghun by the time his anticipated bride had arrived. In fact, he had died before the escorts had even set out, a fact they did not know until they had arrived.

The trip was not wasted, however, because Arghun had a son, Ghazan, who was about the same age as the princess Kököchin. Although not as handsome as his father, he was in many ways an excellent ruler and war-leader. He also had good diplomatic relations with Europeans and the Crusaders. Let's talk more about Ghazan Khan tomorrow.

*Firinghis or farang is Persian and originally intended to refer to Franks, lumping all Western Europeans together. 

The Polos and Kublai

After spending time at the court of Kublai Khan, Niccolò and Maffeo Polo tried to get home to Venice and to deliver a letter from Kublai to the pope. A nice direct route might have been through Constantinople, but the city was hostile to Venetians after the return of Byzantine rule by Michael Paleologus. They went to the Holy Land instead and Acre, capital of the Kingdom of Jerusalem.

The papal legate, Teobaldo Visconti, was in Acre for the Ninth Crusade. He made them aware that Pope Clement IV had died while they were in the East. He advised them to go home and wait for an election. They took ship for Venice, where Niccolò got to know his now-teenaged son he had left behind when he started his trip with Maffeo.

What they and the papal legate could not have known was that there would not be a new pope until 1271, when the compromise candidate was elected in absentia. The summons went to none other than Teobaldo Visconti to return home and assume the Chair of Peter! Now Pope Gregory X, he accepted the letter from the Khan.

At his request, the Polo brothers (now along with Niccolò's son) began the return trip to the court of Kublai Khan along with two Dominican friars, Niccolò de Vicence and William of Tripoli. The Polos reached the court of Kublai Khan in 1273, but the Dominicans were no longer with them: they had supposedly reversed course out of fear. (William ultimately went to the Holy Land as a papal diplomat.)

Marco delighted the Khan, who made him an emissary and promoted his travel all over. Marco brought back many stories of the things he had seen. The Polos asked several times for permission to leave court and return home, but Kublai enjoyed their company so much that it was 17 years until he allowed them to depart.

He allowed them to go with one final mission: to escort a Mongol princess to her betrothed. I'll tell you that story tomorrow.

The Polo Family

Marco Polo didn't get to China on his own; he was taken there as a young man by his father and uncle, who had been there before. Why? Because they were Venetian merchants looking for goods to bring home.

Niccolò Polo (c.1230 - c.1294) left his infant son at home and went with his brother Maffeo to Constantinople, where they lived in the Venetian quarter and established a trading post. Venetians had power in Constantinople because of their role in establishing the Latin Empire during the Fourth Crusade in 1204.

The brothers were aware of hostility toward Venetians, however, and left Constantinople in 1259/60, providentially just before it was recaptured by the Byzantine Michael Paleologus who killed or drove out the Venetians. The Polos started a trading post in Soldaia (now Sudak) in Crimea, on the north shore of the Black Sea.

At that time it was part of the Golden Horde, a Mongol state. Not wishing to return to Constantinople, they continued eastward. The spent a year at the compound of Berke Khan, ruler of the Horde, and agreed to sell items on Berke's behalf. Because, however, of hostility between Berke and his cousin Hulagu, they left that area and went farther east, reaching Bukhara (in modern Uzbekistan), where they stayed for a few years.

A man traveling from Hulagu to meet with Kublai Khan invited them to go along with him. They agreed, and in 1266 they reached the court of Kublai Khan in what is now Beijing. According to the book written by Marco years later, the two brothers were tasked by Kublai to carry a letter to the pope. The letter requested 100 men who could teach about Christianity and the Western culture. He also wanted oil from the lamp in the Holy Sepulchre. To ease their travels, he gave them a 3'x12' golden tablet, a pass that allowed the bearer food and lodging and safe passage in the Mongol Empire. (The illustration shows the granting of the tablet from a 15th century version of Marco's book.)

They made their way to Acre, capital of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. There was a problem delivering the letter to the pope: there was no pope at the time, there being a long pause between the death of one and the election of the next.

Tomorrow we'll talk about the delivery, the fulfillment of Kublai's request, and the return to Kublai's court.

The Book of Marvels

When Marco Polo returned to Venice after two decades of traveling in the East, he signed up to join the war between Venice and Genoa. Incarcerated in a Genoese prison, he began talking to a fellow inmate, Rustichello da Pisa, known for writing romances. The result was Il Milione ("The Million"), also known in English as The Book of the Marvels of the World, or simply The Travels of Marco Polo. It offered details of his travels from 1271 to 1295 and his time at the court of Kublai Khan.

His fantastical stories about what he saw drew amazement and skepticism in equal measure. One theory of the title Il Milione is that it was considered to contain a million lies. Modern scholars are willing to accept that he is interpreting to the best of his ability what he truly saw (or was told) in his travels. We cannot be certain what may have been embellished by Rustichello, although it is clear that he re-used some passages from his previous works (mentioned here).

In 1302 it was translated into Latin as Iter Marci Pauli Veneti, "Travels of the Venetian Marco Polo," by Francesco Pipino, a Dominican archivist. He stood behind what was in the book (although he himself had not raveled widely, only going as far as Constantinople several years later). That Latin edition was popular for years; one edition was owned by Christopher Columbus, whose copy with his notes is shown in the illustration.

Recent research suggests that Pipino's translation was not just a pet project: he might have been given the assignment as an official project of the Dominicans. The Dominican Order wished (as did many orders) to convert all folk everywhere to Christianity, and Polo's writing gave them an itinerary.

Recent communications between the popes and the Mongols were not always friendly, but prior to Marco's trip Kublai Khan had requested of Marco's father and uncle that they carry a letter to the pope requesting missionaries to teach about Roman Christianity. This correspondence also gave fuel to the idea that the East was ready for missionary work. There was even talk of a Christian-Mongol alliance against the spread of Islam.

That alliance did not bear fruit, but trade between Europe and Asia was a welcome idea for everyone, and merchants like Marco's father and uncle made lucrative deals. In fact, the elder Polos are often neglected in stories about Marco and his travels, which makes them—Niccolò and Maffeo by name—excellent subjects for this blog. Let's talk about the men responsible for Marco Polo'd fame next time.

Marco and Kublai

Marco Polo was not the first European to visit China—far from it—but he was the first to write a detailed account of his time there. And he had lots of time and opportunity to travel there and get to know different ethnic groups, their customs, and the geography of the far eastern lands.

He wasn't even the first in his family to go to China. His merchant father and uncle had been to the court of Kublai Khan, and took Marco with them on a later trip. Marco was young, but Kublai was very impressed by his personality and his knowledge.

The intellectually curious Kublai was pre-disposed to be accepting of different religions and cultures. In fact, when Marco's father and uncle returned from their first trip to Kublai's court, they brought with them a letter from Kublai to the pope, requesting 100 missionaries and oil from the lamp of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem. (The three did bring oil as requested.)

Kublai Khan appointed Marco to be his foreign emissary, and sent him on trips all over China, as well as to (according to Marco's account) India and Indonesia, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and Vietnam. In all, he spent 24 years traveling on behalf of Kublai Khan.

When he returned home to Venice, the city was at war with Genoa. Marco joined the fighting, and wound up imprisoned by the Genoese. While there he dictated his "Book of Marvels" to a fellow prisoner, Rustichello da Pisa, a professional romance author.

Rustichello took liberties, and in some places used the same descriptions and passages from his own writing to describe some of Marco's experiences. The description of Marco arriving at Kublai's court matches the description Rustichello used years earlier in an Arthurian romance in which Tristan comes to Arthur's court.

The book created a stir, and debates over its truthfulness. It had a popular supporter, however, in the Dominican Order. Tomorrow I'll explain more about the books's reception and the interest of the Dominicans.

Chinese Technology

Now we approach the part that everyone knows about Kublai Khan even if they don't know anything about Kublai Khan. Kublai was emperor of China when Marco Polo visited the place, traveling with his merchant uncles.

Marco wrote about the wonders that he had seen in China, and those wonders were thanks to Kublai's conquest of the southern Song Dynasty. Let's take a look at some of the technological advancements of the Song that were notable to anyone visiting Kublai's empire.

They had printing presses with movable type long before Gutenberg. Gutenberg's innovation was making type out of metal, while the Chinese used porcelain.

The Song had an astronomical clock tower that was powered hydraulically. The illustration here is from the original 11th-century book describing it, showing the mechanics that run the armillary sphere on top.

Air power was also known to them, since they introduced windmills to China. Water was another place where they innovated, especially in ship-building. The Song had paddle-wheel ships.

Prior to the Song defeat under Kublai, that had successfully defended themselves with weapons powered by gunpowder. They also had flame-throwers, a pumping machine that would spread flaming oil that could not be doused by water. Thy used land mines against the Mongols, and rockets.

Money printed on paper was another marvel noted by Marco Polo, and helped boost the economy. The printing involved employing thousands in mints all over the vast country. The use of paper extended to envelopes, paper bags for tea leaves (for storage, not for steeping), and even toilet paper.

These are some of the sights that were strange to travelers from Western Europe. Let's talk tomorrow about Marco and Kublai, their meeting and their relationship.

Kublai and China

With the Toluid Civil War concluded, Kublai Khan still had troubles dealing with the other khanates descended from Genghis, but I'm going to talk about his actions toward China. He had control over much of northern Han China, but the southern Song Dynasty had been unwilling to submit. In earlier fighting, an agreement had been reached that Kublai would not cross the Yangtze River, but he wanted more.

Kublai offered some autonomy to the Song Emperor Lizong, if only Lizong would surrender his dynasty. Lizong imprisoned the emissary sent to deliver this offer, and rebuffed a delegation sent to ask for the emissary's release. So Kublai had two siege machine experts prepare to destroy fortresses in Song China.

In order to be sen as a traditional Chinese emperor and gain the loyalty of millions, he started calling his regime Dai Yuan, Chinese for "Great Beginnings." He moved his capital to Khanbaliq, which is now called Beijing. Of course conservative and traditional Mongols were outraged at the changes. Many followers turned from him and looked to Kaidu of the Ögedei Khanate.

Kublai's war with the Song Dynasty lasted two decades. The imperial family surrendered in 1276, but others in southern China kept fighting. They were finally conquered in 1279 after a naval battle on 19 March. For the first time, China was a united country under a non-Chinese ruler. Kublai was generous to the remains of the imperial family: they were given tax-free property in the capital, and Kublai's wife looked after their well-being. (Kublai did eventually send the child emperor Gong away o become a monk.)

With the absorption of the Song Dynasty, Kublai's empire now included many technological advancements, the ones that Marco Polo commented on in the record of his travels. Tomorrow we'll bring Kublai, the Song, and Marco together.

The Civil War

In the lead up to the Toluid Civil War, Kublai Khan had the upper hand. He controlled most of the supply lines that would have helped his younger brother, Ariq Böke, and had resources coming from China.

One of Kublai's first successes was against an ally of Ariq in northwestern China, from whom he captured food supplies intended for Ariq's army. He also drove Ariq supporters out of their homes in several towns. Ariq's attempts to attack Kublai's territory in southwestern China was turned away by Kublai's Chinese allies, whom he rewarded handsomely with gifts of silk and silver and with administrative positions.

Ariq's allies abandoned him, except for one: Alghu of the Chagatai Khanate (Chagatai was a son of Genghis Khan; Alghu was a grandson of Chagatai). Ariq named Alghu head of the Chagatai Khanate after the previous khan died, and the Chagatai Khanate became an important source of supplies for Ariq's army.

In 1261, Ariq and Kublai's armies met in battle, during which Ariq called for a retreat. Ten days later he returned and engaged a small contingent of Kublai's army, but could not achieve victory. By this time, Kublai's army had been advancing and occupying much of Mongolia. Ariq asked for help from Alghu, but Alghu saw that the victor of the civil war was likely to be Kublai, and changed allegiance.

Back in southern China, a rebellion took place that required Kublai to take his main force to quell it. With the immediate threat of Kublai gone, Ariq chose to attack his once-ally, Alghu. Ariq's attack on the Chagatai Khanate disillusioned several of his supporters. Ürüng, son of the previous Grand Khan Möngke, had been an ally, but he left Ariq and pledged his loyalty to Kublai instead.

Ariq, running out of allies, and lacking resources to feed and arm an army, turned himself over to Kublai in 1264 at Shangdu (also known as Xanadu), ending four years of hostility. Ariq was imprisoned and ignored by Kublai for an entire year.

Kublai purged the government of officials who were loyal to Ariq, executing some. He called a kurultai to decide what Ariq's fate should be and to officially make himself Grand Khan. Of the four Khanates of Genghis Khan's four sons, none of the others attended this kurultai called by the Toluid Khanate. Two of the khanates were fighting each other, and the Ögedei Khanate was still angry that the Grand Khan position had been maneuvered away from them years earlier.

Kublai would have to deal with other internal threats from those who did not fully accept his role as Grand Khan. Although the four khanates would have ties of trade and culture, they no longer united for military purposes. A united Mongolian Empire was no longer a possible future.

Ariq Böke died of unknown causes while still in prison, in 1266.

Kublai saw soon that his influence on the other khanates was limited, though not non-existent. Tomorrow we'll see him turn to making China his empire.

The Toluid Civil War

When Kublai found out that his younger brother Ariq Böke was making plans to become Grand Khan while Kublai was off subduing the Song Dynasty in China, he was not pleased. Normally, the kurultai that met to decide the next ruler was attended by prominent members of the families of the sons of Genghis Khan (both Kublai and Ariq—pictured here—were grandsons of Genghis through Genghis' youngest son, Tolui).

I suppose the problem was that both boys' uncle Möngke, who had been Grand Khan until his death in 1259, did not nominate a successor. Kublai called a kurultai at Kaiping in China—the first time a kurultai to choose a Grand Khan was called outside of Mongol territory. At it, Kublai was elected Grand Khan. Ariq, who had been making alliances with powerful Mongol chiefs, called a kurultai in the Mongol capital Karakoram that elected him Grand Khan.

Their brother Hulagu wanted to support Kublai, but was detained fighting Mamluks and then dealing with hostility from Berke, current ruler of the Golden Horde (begun by all three brothers' uncle, Batu Khan).

Kublai had Chinese resources behind him. He had been an able administrator, and he promised the Chinese that he could be a benevolent ruler who united Chinese, Mongols, and Koreans. He made grand promises to his potential supporters: lower taxes, rule based on Chinese precedent, and that his era would be one of Zhongtong, "moderate rule."

The Song people in southern China offered no help, but northern China supported him. He had plenty of resources and managed to control three of the four supply lines to Ariq in the capital of Karakoram. Kublai advanced on Karakoram, and Ariq retreated in the only logical direction he had available to him, the way toward the Yenesei River valley in the northwest. Winter set in, forcing Ariq and Kublai to camp and wait for spring.

The Song people of southern China chose this time to rebel, crossing the agreed-upon border of the Yangtze River and recovering some of the territory that Kublai had recently taken. Kublai sent a Chinese diplomat to try to settle the matter, but the diplomat was imprisoned by the Song.

While waiting through the cold season, Kublai continued to gather supplies and recruit soldiers, preparing for civil war. Tomorrow we'll see the results of the fighting.

Kublai, the Early Years

Probably the best-known Khan to modern audiences after Genghis Khan is Kublai Khan, the one we hear about because of Marco Polo.

Kublai was the second son of Sorghaghtani Beki by Tolui, Genghis' youngest son. He was born 23 September 1215. He was raised by a Buddhist nurse at his grandfather's suggestion, a woman whom he treated well all her life.

As a nine-year-old, he was part of a ritual that Genghis performed on his grandsons following a hunt. Kublai and his brother Möngke had killed a rabbit and an antelope, and his grandfather smeared fat from the animals onto the boys' middle fingers. He made a special pronouncement about Kublai: "The words of this boy Kublai are full of wisdom, heed them well – heed them all of you."

After 1236, Kublai was given an estate with 10,000 households, but left local administrators in charge. Those local administrators filled their own pockets with heavy taxes that caused many to leave the territory, which reduced the available tax base. With tax revenue dwindling, Kublai sent new officials picked by his mother who made changes that restored the financial health of his estate.

Kublai loved to learn, and was fascinated by Chinese culture and Buddhism. In 1242 he invited China's leading Buddhist monk to be his guest in Karakorum (the Mongol capital) and teach him more about Buddhism. That monk introduced Kublai to the Buddhist monk Liu Bingzhong, an artist, poet, and mathematician whom Kublai made his advisor. Kublai was known to employ and entertain people of all nationalities.

When Möngke became Grand Khan, Kublai was made viceroy over northern China. He was an able administrator, boosting both agricultural output and social welfare spending. Local Chinese warlords praised him for this. Kublai heard that Tibetan monks had skills at healing. He made a Tibetan Buddhist the director of the Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs in his administration.

Trouble arose when those jealous of Kublai's power complained to Möngke that Kublai was building his own empire. Möngke sent tax inspectors who went over the "books" and found 142 violations and executed some of the Chinese officials responsible. One of the inspectors was a close friend of Kublai's younger brother, Ariq Böke. (Ariq would become real trouble later.)

In 1258, Möngke asked Kublai to help with an attack on Sichuan. Although Kublai was not required to assist personally (he suffered from gout), he accompanied the army anyway. This meant he was present when word came that Möngke had died. He kept the news secret and continued with the attack. He negotiated with the enemy's representatives and agreed that the Yangtze River would be the border between Mongols and the Song dynasty, in exchange for 200,000 taels (1 tael = 50 grams) of silver and 200,000 bolts of silk annually.

Of course, even though the army and the Song dynasty did not know that Möngke had died, others knew. The debate over the next Great Khan had begun, and Kublai learned that his youngest brother Ariq was raising an army. Kublai hurried back to the capital to find that Ariq had been named Great Khan.

This did not suit him, and he was determined to do something about it. He did, and we'll find out what tomorrow.

The End of Güyük

Güyük Khan was making plans to conquer Europe. He had been part of the invasion of Eastern and Central Europe, and wished to continue. The Mongol Empire had already extended to Russia and Ukraine and Hungary, so Christian Western Europe saw the danger (even though Güyük himself was supposedly Christian).

He started with a warning: a letter to the pope (Innocent IV), who had requested that the Mongol Empire stop expanding westward. Claiming that Catholics had sent envoys during the time of Genghis Khan and Ögedei Khan (Güyük's grandfather and father, respectively) that had been killed, he decided on a non-compromising reply.

"You must say with a sincere heart: 'We will be your subjects; we will give you our strength'. You must in person come with your kings, all together, without exception, to render us service and pay us homage. Only then will we acknowledge your submission. And if you do not follow the order of God, and go against our orders, we will know you as our enemy."

There is no reason to believe that Güyük wouldn't keep his armies moving until he reached the Atlantic.

He had to deal with some internal issues first, however. His mother, Töregene, was one. She had been regent, and had been instrumental in getting her son elected Grand Khan, but despite her retirement to China, he wanted her potential influence neutralized. She had, during her regency, put several of her favorites in positions of authority. One of her favorites was Fatima.

Güyük's brother, Koden, accused Fatima of damaging his health through witchcraft. When Koden died some months later, Güyük insisted that Töregene turn Fatima over to him. Töregene refused. Güyük's men seized Fatima, sewed up all her orifices, and threw her in the river. Töregene died 18 months later of no apparent cause.

In 1248, Güyük summoned Batu Khan to meet him at the capital.  He had once insulted Batu, and the two had their differences, but Batu treated Güyük with the loyalty the Grand Khan deserved. Batu began the journey, but he came with an army. Güyük left the capital and moved westward to meet with Batu, also with an army. Sorghaghtani Beki, Güyük's aunt, sent Batu a warning that he should not trust Güyük.

We'll never know what would have happened, since Güyük died en route. He had been known to be a heavy drinker with poor health. William of Rubruck claimed he was killed in a brawl by Shiban, a younger brother of Batu. The widow, Oghul Qaimish, became regent while Batu and Sorghaghtani arranged to make one of Sorghaghtani's sons, Möngke, the next Grand Khan.

Güyük's death stalled the potential conquest of Europe by the Mongols. Instead, the Mongol Empire looked eastward to continue to make inroads into China. That culminated in another of Sorghaghtani's sons becoming emperor of China. That was Kublai Khan, and we'll talk about him more tomorrow.

Güyük Khan

Genghis Khan had many, many children. There were four sons (Jochi, Chagatai, Ögedei, and Tolui) from whom the future rulers of the Mongol Empire would be drawn. Those four and their sons have been mentioned a lot in the past several blog posts, along with the wives of some.

After Genghis died, the youngest, Tolui, was regent for a short time until the third, Ögedei, was elected as the Grand Khan or Great Khan of the empire. Other sons and grandsons, etc., would be khans in their own right over smaller territories, owing allegiance to the Grand Khan.

Upon Ögedei's death in 1241, one of his wives, Töregene Khatun, was regent until their son Güyük could be officially proclaimed. What was he like?

Born in 1206, he served in the military under his famous grandfather until Genghis' death in 1227, then under his own father. A historian in the Mongol Empire who was a contemporary of Güyük claimed that Güyük was a Christian. A Franciscan friar who traveled into Mongol territory on a papal mission, Giovanni da Pian del Carpine, described him as of "medium stature, very prudent and extremely shrewd, and serious and sedate in his manners."

In 1232, his uncle Tolui died, leaving a widow, Sorghaghtani Beki. It was not unusual for a Mongol widow to re-marry into the family, and Ögedei suggested that Sorghaghtani marry Güyük. She asserted that she needed to stay and raise her four sons.

His coronation did not take place until August 1246, and included 3,000 to 4,000 visitors bearing tributes from all over the empire. In response to Giovanni's letter from Pope Innocent IV, asking that the Mongols cease invading westward, Güyük had a harsh reply. In a letter to the pope, he claimed that Europe must bow down to the Mongol Empire:

"You must say with a sincere heart: 'We will be your subjects; we will give you our strength'. You must in person come with your kings, all together, without exception, to render us service and pay us homage. Only then will we acknowledge your submission. And if you do not follow the order of God, and go against our orders, we will know you as our enemy."

Although Güyük's mother Töregene had been instrumental in promoting his accession, he quickly shut her out of any more administrative work, reversing many of her decisions while she had been regent. He also eliminated many other officials, executing them for treason and replacing them with his favorites. This made him unpopular with the people, although he was a competent military commander and administrator. He managed the dispute over the kings of Georgia.

We will wrap up this summary of his life and administration—and his plans to conquer Europe—tomorrow.

They Wanted a Boy

When Güyük Khan died, Batu Khan started making decisions toward the election of the next Grand Khan. He didn't want the position himself, but he did want to take it away from the Ögedei family (Ögedei was Güyük's father and one of the sons of Genghis Khan). It was customary for Mongol widows to manage their husband's estates, and sometimes even re-marry back into the family. Batu had Güyük's widow become regent over his territories.

Her name was Oghul Qaimish, which means "We were searching for a boy," suggesting that her parents wanted a son rather than a daughter. She came from the Merkit tribe that was conquered by Genghis Khan. Male members of the ruling family were likely killed. She was given as a "secondary bride" to Güyük, a grandson of Genghis.

Güyük's mother, Töregene, was also a Merkit, and might have promoted the marriage because of their shared heritage. Otherwise, Oghul brought no political advantage to Güyük.

She was probably born in the early 1200s, and was therefore in her 40s when she became a widow; her regency lasted from 1248 to 1251.

Batu and Sorghaghtani Beki, widow of Genghis' youngest son, Tolui, were allied in making Oghul regent. This generous move on their part of Batu might have had an ulterior motive outside of following Mongol custom. Oghul had not played any particular role in the management of Güyük's administration previously. With no political experience, her regency was ineffective. She also had difficulty with her two sons who acted as "sub-rulers"; the three made pronouncements that often contradicted each other, creating chaos in their lands. Oghul apparently spent a lot of her time consulting shamans for advice.

Also Sorghaghtani Beki had four sons whom she wished to see advance, and it was her eldest, Möngke, who was put forward by her and Batu as the next Grand Khan. If Oghul thought she could manage to get one of her sons to succeed Güyük, she did not have the political skill it would take to convince the other descendants of Genghis to go along.

When Batu called a kurultai, the council that would decide, many did not attend because he held it outside primary Mongol territory. Oghul sent a representative, Bala, who tried to convince the group that Ögedei's favorite grandson Shiremun should be chosen. This failed, and Möngke was chosen (although there was opposition).

Möngke was officially recognized on 1 July 1251, and Shiremun and Naqu (one of Oghul's sons) mounted a coup. It failed, Oghul was then blamed, arrested, and imprisoned by Sorghaghtani, who had her stripped and tortured before being sentenced to execution for the crime of witchcraft. Execution was done by wrapping her in felt and casting her into the river.

It occurs to me that I don't have a definitive entry in the blog for Güyük himself. Let me tell you about him more directly next time.

The End of Batu Khan

After the death of Güyük Khan, Batu Khan saw an opportunity to take the overlordship away from the Ögedei clan and bring it to his own lineage. He had made great success in expanding the borders of the Mongol Empire westward, after all.

First, he allowed Güyük's wife, Oghul Qaimish, to act as regent while a decision was made, then he called a kurultai, the council of important members of families, to take place in 1250 in territory under his control. Those who should be there, Ögedei's clan and the Chagatai clan (the children of Genghis Khan), refused to leave primary Mongol territory to attend.

Batu did not actually want to be the Grand Khan himself, and rejected it when the kurultai offered it. Instead, he proposed his cousin Möngke, son of Genghis' son Tolui. The Tolui-descended families were in favor, but since not all descendants of Genghis were present, the election was not considered legitimate by many. So Batu sent Möngke, with an escort that included Batu's brothers and son, to meet with the other families. The other families still refused to take part in a kurultai for the purpose of ratifying Möngke.

Möngke was presented to the people at large, who accepted him, and Batu then punished the clans of Ögedei and Chagatai. Buri, a grandson of Chagatai, was outright executed as part of this punishment.

Batu was greatly respected as a kingmaker as well as a loyal subject, allowing Möngke's officers to operate in Batu's territory. Batu and Möngke stayed friendly with each other and, together, saw the Mongol Empire stretch from Afghanistan to Turkey (the illustration is a bust of Batu from Turkey).

Batu did in 1255, leaving his properties to his son Sartaq.

Since recently we have looked at Mongol women and the influence they have, I want to take a look at Oghul Qaimish, Güyük's widow. Since Batu intended to take control of the Empire away from Güyük's family, it is interesting that he put Güyük's widow in charge. Let's take a closer look at this powerful woman tomorrow.

Invading Europe

Batu Khan's military successes inspired Ögedei Khan to have him invade Europe. He had already conquered the Crimean Peninsula.

Spies were sent into Poland, Hungary, and Austria for reconnaissance. Having planned their approach, three separate armies invaded Central Europe: into Hungary, Transylvania, and Poland. The column into Poland defeated Henry II the Pious.

The second and third columns crossed the Carpathians and followed the Danube, combining with the Poland column and defeating the Hungarian army under King Béla IV of Hungary on 11 April 1241. They killed half the Hungarian population, then proceeded to German territory. Béla had sent to Pope Innocent IV for a Crusade against the Mongols, but the pope was focused on the Holy Land. (The illustration is from a 14th century history, the Chronicon Pictum, or "Illustrated Chronicle," and shows Béla fleeing.)

Austria, Dalmatia, and Moravia were occupied. While this was going on, a group led by Ögedei's son Güyük was conquering Transylvania.

Further advances in Germany were paused when the Great Khan died in 1241. Batu's thirst to continue was quenched by a reminder of Mongol law, that the chief descendants of Genghis had to return to Mongolia to elect his replacement.

Batu took his time returning, and the election was delayed for several years until Güyük was elected in 1246. Batu became the viceroy over the western empire. Batu returned to the western front and summoned the Grand prince of Vladimir, Yaroslav II. Batu put him in charge of all other Russian princes.

Around this time Batu came into contact with Europeans and their culture. Giovanni of Plano Carpini was sent by Pope Innocent IV to take a letter to Ögedei, protesting the Mongol invasion. Giovanni met with Batu, who gave him permission to continue to the court of the Great Khan. Giovanni described Batu as "kind enough to his own people, but he is greatly feared by them. He is, however, most cruel in fight; he is very shrewd and extremely crafty in warfare, for he has been waging war for a long time."

William of Rubruck also encountered Batu, describing him physically as about the same height as John de Beaumont (which tells those who never met John de Beaumont nothing useful, but other sources put him at 5'7"), and that his face was covered with red spots.

Others whose paths crossed with Batu are Queen Rusudan, who sent her son David to Batu for recognition. Sorghaghtani Beki sent Batu a warning to beware of a summons from Güyük. Before Batu reached Güyük, Güyük died mysteriously; Rubruck wrote it was one of Batu's brothers who did the deed.

The position of Great Khan was again available. What would Batu do about it? Come back tomorrow to find out.