The Holy Monastery

One of the oldest monasteries in the Peloponnese, the Agia Lavra (Greek: literally "Holy Monastery") was built in 961. It is on Chelmos (also Helmos) Mountain, 961 meters above sea level. Chelmos is also home to the mountain village of Kalavryta.

Kalavryta was the seat of the Barony of Kalavryta in the later Middle Ages (established c.1209), of which very little is known except through some Venetian records and the 14th century Chronicle of Morea, a Greek poem of 9000 lines that narrates the Western European conquest of Morea (the Peloponnese) after of the shameful actions of the Fourth Crusade.

The monastery was destroyed more than once in the post-Medieval period, by Turks in 1585, by the Egyptian army of Ibrahim Pasha in 1826, and in 1943 by German troops. It survives, however, and has a museum as well as an opportunity for monastic living. The monastery celebrates the Dormition of Mary on 15 August.

The museum has many items, including an 11th-century Gospel, gold-embroidered vestments from the 1500s, patriarchal seals, and saints' relics, including part of the skull of St. Alexius. You can read about St. Alexius here and here. He was a wealthy Roman citizen in the 4th century who gave up everything to live as a hermit, presumably in Greece, before returning to Rome to live unrecognized in his family's home. Alexius is considered the patron saint of the town of Kalavryta.

The part of Alexius' skull at the monastery was given to them in 1398 by Manuel II Paleologos, Byzantine Emperor from 1391 to 1425. Where he got it, since Alexius returned to Rome and died there many years later, no one can tell. Manuel offered many relics to different groups during his long reign. I think we should look into some goings on in Constantinople next.

St. Alexius in Rome

Alexius was a 4th-century son of a wealthy family who married well and had riches, but right after his wedding decided he wanted to give away all his wealth and live in poverty and complete obscurity. His plan didn't turn out exactly as he wished. I gave more details in this post.

The story of Alexius was not well known in the West—it was around more in the East although he was called a native of Rome—but there is a place in Rome now that remembers him. Physically changed by his years of poverty, he lived under the stairs of his parents' home for many years until his death. Legend tells us this was on the Aventine Hill in Rome.

The church of Saint Boniface has been on the Aventine Hill since the 8th century. Pope Benedict VII in 972 gave it over to Sergius of Damascus, a Greek metropolitan who had been living in Rome since being exiled. Next to the church, Sergius built a monastery for Greek and Roman monks who wished to live in strict poverty. It was Sergius who brought the story of Alexius to Rome. Sergius changed the name of the Church to include Alexius, and he created the legend that the holy man's family home was on this site.

Today, if you enter the Basilica of Saint Boniface and Alexius, on the left side there is a house, the "house of Alexius' family." In it you will see stairs called the Holy Steps, below which there is an altar. The altar is where Alexius lived for 17 years. If you look at the illustration, you can assume the area is a little more elaborate than it would have been in the 4th or 10th centuries.

He is the patron saint of beggars, nurses, pilgrims, travelers, and the town of Kalavryta in Greece, where there is a monastery called Agia Lavra ("Holy Monastery") that is his major shrine. Why Kalavryta? I'm trying to work that out. Once I've done some research, I'll get back to you.

See you tomorrow.

The Crescentii

Yesterday I talked about the end of Crescentius II at the hands of Otto III, because he caused too much trouble in Rome even after having been pardoned for earlier offenses. His family had been a force in Rome for awhile. He was often called "the Younger" and his father called "Crescentius the Elder." The family was the same that started with Theophylact I.

The Elder Crescentius saw an opportunity to become more prominent in Rome after the Carolingian dynasty lost power through their own fraternal wars between Charlemagne's grandsons. Crescentius was around during the time of Otto I when a synod removed Pope John XII. Pope John XIII was Crescentius' brother, which helped support the Elder's grasp on Roman politics.

But when John XIII died and Otto I designated a successor (Benedict VI), Romans resented the outside interference from the emperor. When Otto II became emperor and was involved in foreign wars, the Romans under Crescentius took over, imprisoning Benedict VI into the Castel Sant'Angelo, where he was killed in 974.

The Romans then chose Boniface VII, against the advice of the emperor's envoy. When members of the imperial faction reasserted their authority, Boniface fled Rome, going to Constantinople and being replaced by Benedict VII, who was then succeeded by John XIV.

When Otto II died, Boniface returned from Constantinople in 984, supported by Crescentii the Younger. Pope John XIV was imprisoned in the Castel Sant'Angelo and died four months later. Otto III eventually (and brutally) dealt with the matter of who controlled Rome and the papacy.

By this time, however, Crescentius the Elder had changed his lifestyle. He chose to join the monastery of St. Alexius on the Aventine Hill in Rome, taking up monastic habit and dropping out of public life.

Now, Alexius was a 4th-century saint who has been mentioned before, but the monastery was only a few years old. I'll tell you a little more tomorrow.

Crescentius the Younger

After Otto III's coronation, he and Pope Gregory V (his cousin Bruno) summoned all the Roman nobility who had created such difficulties for the previous pope, John XV. While Otto declared exile for them, Pope Gregory requested mercy. The leader of these Romans, who had styled himself Patrician, was Crescentius II. Instead of banishment, Crescentius was allowed to remain in Rome.

Crescentius was not chastened. A few months after Otto had returned to Germany, Crescentius started trouble. Romans did not like their new German pope, or the foreigners that had been placed in administrative positions in Rome by the emperor. The resulting rebellion caused Gregory to flee to Pavia.

In Pavia, Gregory called a synod and declared Crescentius an excommunicate. Crescentius did not care. He chose the Bishop of Piacenza, Johannes Philagathos, who had recently returned from Constantinople, to be pope. Johannes became the antipope John XVI.

Otto marched back to Rome in February 998 with Gregory. The antipope fled, but was soon caught. He was sent to the monastery of Fulda in Germany, but only after his nose and ears were cut off and his eyes and tongue ripped out. He died in 1001.

Crescentius barricaded himself in the Castel Sant'Angelo (pictured above) where he was safe until the castle was taken in April. After execution, his corpse was hanged on one of the hills northwest of Rome, the Monte Mario.

Yesterday's post shared a theory that Otto's death was caused by Crescentius' widow, Stephania. A 1906 historical work has this passage:

Stephania, his widow, concealing her affliction and her resentment for the insults to which she had been exposed, secretly resolved to revenge her husband and herself. On the return of Otho from a pilgrimage to Mount Gargano, which, perhaps, a feeling of remorse had induced him to undertake, she found means to be introduced to him, and to gain his confidence; and a poison administered by her was soon afterwards the cause of his painful death. [Sismondi, History of the Italian Republics, vol. i]

Why was Crescentius so determined to ignore the will of the emperor and try to rule Rome? Turns out it was a family trait. I'll explain next time.

Otto III's Coronation

The latest scion of the Crescentius family was lording it over Rome and dominating the pope, John XV, who had been forced to flee Rome. Otto III needed a pope to confirm him as Holy Roman Emperor, and he was just recently old enough to step out of the regency period overseen by his mother and grandmother.

He assembled an army to march toward Rome. Stopping in Verona he formed a good relationship with the future Doge of Venice (also named Otto), which helped make relations with Venice better than they had been under Otto's father. Stopping in Pavia at Easter 996, he was formally declared King of Italy and crowned with the Iron Crown of Lombardy.

Before he reached Rome, Crescentius decided he should make peace with the about-to-be-crowned emperor. Pope John XV died before Otto reached Rome. Otto nominated his chaplain, Bruno of Carinthia, who happened to be Otto's cousin (Otto I was the grandfather of both men). He sent Bruno to Rome (Otto was still in Ravenna) with Archbishop Willigis. Crescentius, fearing potential retribution, locked himself away in the Tomb of Hadrian, also known as the Castel Sant'Angelo.

Bruno was confirmed and took the papal regnal name of Gregory V. He crowned Otto as Holy Roman Emperor on 21 May 996 at St. Peter's Basilica (the crown itself shown above). Emperor and pope held a synod a few days later. The Roman nobles that had imprisoned John XV were summoned and banished for their actions, including Crescentius. The new pope, however, did not want to start his reign making enemies; he pleaded for mercy from the emperor. Many were pardoned, and Crescentius was allowed to live in Rome, but he was stripped of the self-given title Patrician of the Romans.

Otto then sent out to restore the glory of the Roman Empire, but he only had six years to do it before his death in January 1002 of a sudden fever while traveling to Rome again to quell unrest against his rule. Malaria was one theory about his illness. Another theory at the time was that the widow of Crescentius had seduced Otto and then poisoned him.

Crescentius? Why would there be hostility from his widow toward Otto? Crescentius was pardoned and lived out his life peacefully in Rome, right? If only that were true. Crescentius continued to cause trouble. I'll go into that tomorrow.

Otto III's Regency, Part 3

After the death of his mother, Holy Roman Empress Theophanu, the responsibility for the regency of Otto III (still only 11 years old) passed to his grandmother, Holy Roman Empress Adelaide. Each of these women had been heavily involved in her husband's administration and was quite capable of managing important affairs.

Adelaide helped govern during the 992 war between Bohemia and Poland, in which the Ottonian regime supported Poland.

Her regency lasted only a few years, since in 994 Otto turned 14. In September of that year he was granted the right to govern Germany without the need of a regent. A letter from Otto to his grandmother suggests that she was happy to give up the responsibility:

According to your wishes and desires, the divinity has conferred the rights of an empire on us with a happy outcome.

Otto now became King of Italy as well as King of Germany, but was not yet crowned Holy Roman Emperor. That was coming soon.

At this point, Adelaide was active in charity work, founding and restoring monasteries and churches. A nunnery she had founded in 991 was her final residence, retiring there when Otto no longer needed her at court. She died there on 16 December 999 and was buried in the abbey. Pope Urban II canonized her in 1097 for her service to the Church.

On his own now, Otto faced and put down a Slavic rebellion. He then had trouble in Italy; he mounted an expedition to support Pope John XIV (a Lombard who had been Otto's father's chancellor), but was being beset by a Roman faction who wanted their own Italian pope put in place. A leader of the Roman aristocracy, Crescentius II, was calling himself Patrician of the Romans and trying to rule the place. They imprisoned John XIV in the Tomb of Hadrian and put antipope Boniface VII in his place. (The clan of the Crescentii figured largely in papal positions for several generations.)

Pope John XIV died in his prison. When Boniface VII died, Pope John XV succeeded him, but Crescentius had too much influence over him to satisfy Otto. John XV actually fled Rome to get away from Crescentius. Otto's goal was to restore proper order as well as the pope. This would be the greatest challenge of his reign, and I'll tell you about it tomorrow.

Otto III's Regency, Part 2

 

We are continuing from here, after a detour through the Great Gandersheim Conflict.

Otto was only a few years old in 983 when he became King of Germany upon his father's death, so his mother was named regent (after a conflict with Henry the Quarrelsome). Because Otto's father was also Holy Roman Emperor and his mother, Theophanu, was Holy Roman Empress, she became regent until her death in 991.

The regency period was relatively peaceful. Theophanu had been heavily involved in administration alongside her husband, so she was ready to manage things for her son. One of her acts was to negotiate a treaty with the King of Sweden, Eric the Victorious. She set up diplomatic relations with Vladimir I of Kyiv, and with the Duke of Poland Mieszko I.

Because the Byzantine culture included a close working relationship between emperor and patriarch, she cultivated a relationship with the pope. She brought other parts of Byzantine culture: not only physical style in jewelry, furniture, and clothing, but also eating habits and legal procedures.

There were military actions under her regency. In 987 she went with the army to assist the Prince-Bishop Notker of Liège (he was a Benedictine monk who had been chaplain to Theophanu's father-in-law, Holy Roman Emperor Otto I and received a countship) against Odo I, Count of Blois.

Theophanu developed an illness in 988 that lingered until her death in 991. Her sarcophagus (seen here), is in the Church of St. Pantaleon in Cologne. The contemporary chronicler Thietmar of Cologne wrote of her:

Though she was of the weak sex she possessed moderation, trustworthiness, and good manners. In this way she protected with male vigilance the royal power for her son, friendly with all those who were honest, but with terrifying superiority against rebels.

Otto was still a child, and so the regency passed to the other family member who was also a Holy Roman Empress, his paternal grandmother, Adelaide of Italy. She would see him through adulthood, as we will see next time.

The Gandersheim Conflict, Part 2

The Archbishop of Mainz and the Bishop of Hildesheim each wanted jurisdiction over the wealthy Gandersheim Abbey. This conflict reached a peak of pettiness when the abbey was to be reconsecrated on 14 September 1000 after being rebuilt due to a fire years earlier.

Archbishop of Mainz Willigis had postponed the consecration by a week after Bishop of Hildesheim Bernward had already received an invitation. Willigis knew that Bernward would be tied up in other court matters a week later. When Bernward showed up on the 14th, thinking he was going to take part in the ceremony and yet finding no preparations made, he decided to perform a Mass anyway. He publicly preached against the acting abbess, Sophia (who favored Willigis), which caused a riot.

On the 21st, Willigis appeared for the consecration and made a point of Bernward's absence, calling it a breach of duty and demanding that he appear the next day or Willigis would consecrate the abbey alone. Bernard had already planned for this: he sent Bishop of Schleswig Ekkehard to take his place at Gandersheim, a solution supported by canon law. Although Bernward would have preferred being at Gandersheim himself, he was able to avoid giving Willigis the sole spotlight and the opportunity to criticize Bernard for his absence.

Willigis convened a synod at Gandersheim to deal with the rights of Gandersheim once and for all, but Bernward was already on his way to Rome to appeal to Pope Sylvester II and Emperor Otto III (Sophia's nephew). Bernward reached Rome on 4 January, A representative from Ekkehard with details of the incident at Gandersheim arrived on the 7th.

Although Willigis was an important member of the court from the time of Otto's father, Bernward had familiarity on his side: Bernward and Sylvester (Gerbert of Aurillac prior to becoming pope) were tutors to Otto III in his youth. A papal letter dated 13 January was sent to Willigis to demand he hand off the rights to Gandersheim to the bishops of Hildesheim.

Willigis and Sophia still opposed Bernward. Another synod in June held by a papal legate was disrupted when armed men loyal to Willigis prevented the reading aloud of the papal letter transferring rights. Willigis tried to invite Bernward to a meeting in August, but Bernward claimed (and perhaps was) ill and sent Ekkehard and the German historian Thangmar as his representatives. Willigis did not believe the story of illness. Otto called for another meeting in December, postponed until 6 January 1002 because of weather, and then cancelled when Otto died on 23 January.

Otto's successor was Henry II ("the Saint"), son of Henry the Quarrelsome who had caused much trouble years earlier for Otto and the kingdom. A man in his 30s who needed no regent and had his own mind, he called both bishops to a meeting in 1006 at which he declared the conflict over and gave Bernward the task to finally plan the consecration ceremony. During the ceremony, Henry (who attended) officially declared that Gandersheim Abbey was to be in the hands of the bishops of Hildesheim. Willigis was allowed to participate in the consecration.

Fifteen years later the conflict arose again, but I really want to get back to the regency of Otto III before we forget. We'll resume how things were going with Otto's mother and paternal grandmother. See you tomorrow.

The Gandersheim Conflict, Part 1

A significant controversy during the reign of Holy Roman Emperor Otto III while he was still under the regency of his mother, Theophanu, was the conflict over Gandersheim Abbey in 987. Gandersheim in Lower Saxony had been founded not long before but had been richly endowed with relics of Popes Anastasius I and Innocent I. It housed secular canonesses. Its original location put it under the jurisdiction of the bishops of Hildesheim.

The controversy arose when Sophia, a daughter of Otto II and therefore Otto III's aunt, wanted to become invested as a canoness there. Because she was from a royal family, she did not want the ceremony to be facilitated by the bishop of Hildesheim, Osdag. She preferred the Archbishop of Mainz, Willigis, who was also chancellor of Germany.

Willigis decided this was an opportunity to claim jurisdiction over Gandersheim for Mainz. Technically, the abbey had been founded in the territory of Hildesheim, but had moved to Gandersheim which was across the border and inside the archdiocese of Mainz.

Theophanu mediated between the two and the disagreement was settled by having both Willigis and Osdag perform the investiture of Sophia. But the issue was not over.

The young Otto III was being tutored by Bernward of Hildesheim. In 993, Bernward became Bishop Bernward of Hildesheim. Everyone seemed on friendly terms, but according to one historian, Thangmar, Sophia was not friendly to the bishops of Hildesheim, even when Bernward succeeded Osdag. She had her fellow canonesses treat him coldly when he visited the abbey. When Pope Sylvester II (who, as Gerbert of Aurillac had been Otto's other tutor) gave his old colleague Bernward authority over Gandersheim, Bernward was blocked from entering the abbey by soldiers who were organized by Sophia.

A fire in 973 had destroyed part of the abbey. It was supposed to be reconsecrated on 14 September 1000, and Sophia, acting in place of the seriously ill abbess, asked Archbishop Willigis to perform the ceremony. The date was set and announced, Bernward was invited, and on 14 September Bernward showed up, thinking he would reconsecrate the abbey. Willigis, however, had postponed the date until a week later when he knew Bernward would be otherwise occupied at court. Bernward, therefore, found no preparations ready for the ceremony.

Bernward celebrated a Mass there anyway and publicly blamed Sophia for not being able to consecrate the abbey. The Mass turned into a riot. One week later, he got his revenge on Willigis and the plan to exclude him. I'll tell you the rest next time.

Otto III's Regency, Part 1

Otto III (980 - 23 January 1002) became King of Germany at the age of three on the death of his father, Otto II. He was in line to be Holy Roman Emperor, but had to go through a regency period until he was older. He was able to claim the title King of Italy in April 996, and Holy Roman Emperor in May.

Otto's closest male relative after the death of his father was Henry the Quarrelsome (pictured here), who claimed the regency. Henry had tried to usurp Otto II's position and had been imprisoned for it, but was released upon Otto II's death. Against the objections of Otto III's mother, Theophanu, and Theophanu's mother-in-law, Adelaide of Italy, Archbishop of Cologne Warin granted Henry the regency. The two women had had their differences in the past (and probably in the present), but each was a Holy Roman Empress, and neither wanted to see someone else have control of the empire.

The women's concerns were well-founded. Henry ruled less on behalf of Otto and more (according to Gerbert of Aurillac) in a style of joint kingship. Henry took (abducted) Otto to Saxony where he campaigned for the German throne for himself. Not everyone supported this, and some of the nobles removed themselves to a place where they could plan to oppose him. The civil war that would have resulted led to Henry backing down from his claims so long as he was restored as Duke of Bavaria (a title he had lost when he first opposed Otto II).

In 984 the regency then passed to Theophanu. She kept much of her husband's court intact, and Archbishop of Mainz Willligis, technically by his office the chancellor of Germany, handled a lot of the administration. In 986, at an Easter celebration, Theophanu managed to see the major dukes of Germany (Henry the Quarrelsome, Conrad I of Swabia, Henry III of Carinthia, and Bernard I of Saxony) pay tribute to the five-year-old king of Germany, taking roles in the ceremony as steward, chamberlain, cupbearer, and marshal.

When he turned six, Otto began being tutored by Gerbert of Aurillac and court chaplain Bernward of Hildesheim.

Things were relatively calm (although Adelaide found some of her previous authority lessened). The first real challenge came when the Great Gandersheim Conflict broke out, involving two of the loyal servants we have already met as well as Otto's great aunt whom we have not. I'll tell you about that tomorrow.

Theophanu and Adelaide

Odilo of Cluny (c.962 - 1049) wrote a life of Holy Roman Empress Adelaide of Italy (to whom he was supposedly related). It is from Odilo that we learn Adelaide was very happy when "that Greek woman died."

The "Greek woman" was Theophanu, who in 972 married Adelaide's son, Otto II, who became Holy Roman Emperor a year later when his father and Adelaide's husband, Otto I, died.

Part of the issue between mother-in-law and daughter-in-law may have been simply that Adelaide, the first woman to be crowned Holy Roman Empress, who was deeply involved in the empire's administration, was unwilling to relinquish her authority and step away during her son's reign. She may also have been (this is not unlikely) unhappy with a foreigner marrying her son (there was some hostility between the East and West of the Roman Empire).

There were more overt reasons, however. In 972, Adelaide's niece married a man known as Henry the Quarrelsome, who was the son of Otto I's younger brother Henry I of Bavaria. Henry wanted to oust Otto II in 974. Otto imprisoned Henry in 976, but when Otto II died in 983 Henry was released and tried to take the throne from the successor, Otto III. Henry kidnapped the three-year-old Otto III, but he lost the support of the German nobility and was forced to submit to the authority of Empress Theophanu. Adelaide's early friendly association with Henry made Theophanu unhappy.

Otto II had even felt it necessary to exile Adelaide from court in 978 because of her interference with his administration, spending her time between Pavia and with her brother Conrad I, King of Burgundy, in Arles. Conrad helped reconcile mother and son.

Peter Damian (c.1007 - 1072), although writing later, claimed that Theophanu had an affair with John Philagathos (c.945 - c.1001), a Greek monk who was Theophanu's chaplain and Otto's chancellor 980-982 and briefly became Antipope John XVI.

When Otto II died, Otto III was only three, so Theophanu was regent, but Adelaide would have had a difficult time not being involved in government with her son gone. Both women held the title Empress. Adelaide had dowry lands and wanted to dispose of those rents/taxes as she saw fit, but Theophanu now (as regent for the young Emperor Otto III), had the authority to direct many of those finances. Theophanu pre-deceased Adelaide, who then became regent for Otto III. Let's see how that went, next time.

Adelaide of Italy

Yesterday I mentioned the need to explain Adelaide of Italy to understand how she affected the marriage of her son.

Adelaide was born to King Rudolph II of Upper Burgundy (now Switzerland) and Bertha of Swabia. Her parents became king and queen of (northern) Italy after the death of Berengar I. Later, after her father's death, Adelaide was married to the new King of Italy, Lothair II. She was 15 years old. They had a daughter, Emma of Italy, who married King Lothair of France.

After Lothair died, his successor Berengar II tried to force a marriage between Adelaide and Berengar's son, Adalbert. Adelaide refused and fled, but was caught and imprisoned for four months. She managed to escape and (we believe) found while in hiding by a priest who took her to a safe refuge. From there she wrote to Otto I asking for protection, for which he had an idea. They met and married on 23 September 951. (See the two at Meissen Cathedral in the illustration.)

Otto had been married before, but when his son from that wife, Liudolf Duke of Swabia, led a revolt  that was quelled, Otto dispossessed Liudolf of his title. This was a good sign for any future children of Otto's and Adelaide's. They had a couple sons who died while young, but they continued producing children, including Otto II.

Otto I was crowned Holy Roman Emperor on 2 February 962 by Pope John XII, whom Otto (accompanied by Adelaide) had come to Rome with an army to protect against John's enemies. In a first for the Holy Roman Empire, John crowned Adelaide as Holy Roman Empress.

Adelaide's influence in the Empire was significant. She was named alongside Otto in papal bulls. She was involved in 75 charters. She received requests for help and protection separate from requests to her husband. Her daughter Emma wrote, asking for help against enemies, as did future Pope Sylvester II, Gerbert of Aurillac.

After a later expedition to Rome to support Pope John XIII, Adelaide remained in Rome with her son Otto for six years. In 967, Otto II was crowned co-emperor, and in April 972 Otto married Theophanu, daughter of a former Byzantine Emperor. When Otto I died in 973 and Otto II became Holy Roman Emperor in his own right, Adelaide did not relinquish any of the authority she was accustomed to wield, which interfered with her son's rule and clashed with her daughter-in-law.

Tomorrow we'll go back to Theophanu and see how things were between her and her mother-in-law.

Otto and Theophanu

Holy Roman Emperor Otto I was looking for a suitable bride for his son, Otto, and thought the daughter of a Byzantine Emperor was a good choice. The Byzantine Emperor, however, saw themselves as the emperors of the Roman Empire, West as well as East, and so disliked Otto styling himself as Holy Roman Emperor and Pope John XIII referring to him as "Emperor of the Greeks." This caused the breakdown of initial attempts to arrange a marriage with Anna Porphyrogeneta, daughter of former Emperor Romanus II, as recorded by Liudprand of Cremona.

There was more than one attempt to get a Byzantine bride for young Otto. The later ruler, Emperor John I Tzimiskes, had been treated a little differently. He had been referred to as Roman Emperor and so was not insulted. A round of negotiations was led by Archbishop Gero of Cologne. (Liudprand might have been involved, since he spoke and wrote Greek and was familiar with Constantinople, but his previous encounter might have made him a detriment to diplomacy.)

John chose his niece Theophanu, who was 14. There were some concerns in the West. For one, she was not "Porphyrogeneta," which means "born to the purple," so she was less royal than Anna. Also, she was even "less royal" because she was the emperor's niece through his brother-in-law by marriage and not actually a member of there powerful Macedonian dynasty.

John I Tzimiskes had come to power by overthrowing Nicephorus II Phocas, and the Ottonians were concerned that John's status as a usurper would invalidate Theophanu's suitability and standing as a link to the Byzantine Empire. Otto was advised to send her back to Constantinople, but for whatever reason he was persuaded otherwise. They were wed by Pope John XIII on 14 April 972. (You can actually see the marriage charter here.) She was also crowned Holy Roman Empress on the same day. The illustration is of Christ blessing the young couple.

One historian claims that Otto I, her father-in-law, was very supportive until his death a year later. Theophanu was later very involved in the running of the empire: she is mentioned in one quarter of the imperial documents. Although she was from a different culture, which made many of Otto's subjects wary of her, the only serious difficulty was with her mother-in-law, Adelaide of Italy. Before we go on to see what kind of ruler Theophanu was, let's take a look at Adelaide starting tomorrow.

Liudprand in Constantinople

When Liudprand of Cremona went to Constantinople a second time, it was specifically to arrange a marriage between the son of Holy Roman Emperor Otto I and Anna Porphyrogeneta, daughter of former Emperor Romanus II.

The atmosphere in Constantinople was not as welcoming as his first visit there, and he described it in a letter to Otto:

On the day before the Nones of June (June 4) we came to Constantinople, and there, as a mark of disrespect to yourselves, being shamefully received, we were harshly and shamefully treated. We were shut up in a palace large enough, indeed, but uncovered, neither keeping out the cold nor warding off the heat. Armed soldiers were made to stand guard who were to prevent all of my companions from going out and all others from coming in. This dwelling, into which we alone who were shut up could pass, was so far removed from the palace that our breath was taken away when we walked there - we did not ride. To add to our calamity the Greek wine, on account of being mixed with pitch, resin, and plaster was to us undrinkable - The house itself was without water, nor could we even for money buy water to still our thirst. To this great torment was added another torment - our warden namely, who cared for our daily support. If one were to look for his like, not earth. but perhaps hell, would furnish it; for he, like an inundating torrent, poured forth on us whatever calamity, whatever plunder, whatever expense, whatever torment, whatever misery he could invent.- Nor among a hundred and twenty days did a single one pass without bringing us groaning and grief. [source]

Why such a different reception?

The current Byzantine Emperor, Nicephorus Phocas, still lay claim to Benevento and Capua in Italy, and Byzantine forces had clashed recently with Otto's forces. Nicephorus, as the Eastern Emperor, also objected to Otto calling himself Holy Roman Emperor. Nicephorus was also annoyed that, in a letter from Pope John XIII, Nicephorus had been called "Emperor of the Greeks," when technically he was Emperor over the entirety of the Roman Empire, including the western parts.

The "insult" went both ways. Liudprand was brought before the emperor's brother, who (he says in the letter to Otto):

...called you not emperor, which is Basileus in his tongue, but, to insult you, Rex, which is king in ours. And when I told him that the thing signified was the same although the terms used to signify it, were different, he said that I had come not to make peace but to excite discord;

Liudprand was not the most diplomatic of diplomats. He relates how, after he purchased purple cloth, and it was confiscated because (they told him) it was reserved for royals because it is unique, he replied:

"Such a garment can hardly be called unique," I answered, "when with us the street-walkers and conjurers wear them."

A marriage between Otto II and Anna never took place. Liudprand might have gone to Constantinople one more time after that, during the negotiation that led to Otto getting a Byzantine bride, but there is no account of it.

A new bishop of Cremona was installed in 973, so Liudprand must have died by then. But we have no other stories from him except his histories. How Otto got his Byzantine bride, however, will come next. See you tomorrow.

Liudprand of Cremona

We are grateful that some people in the past chose to record what they saw and heard, or what they were told by others. Surviving histories help to build a picture of what life was like centuries ago. Unfortunately, many wrote with an agenda. Liudprand of Cremona certainly had opinions he wanted to get across with his writings, along with his histories.

He was born c.920 in Pavia, in northern Italy, and was a page to Hugh of Arles who was styled King of (northern) Italy and married Marozia of Rome. Hugh died in 947, after which Liudprand became confidential secretary and then chancellor to Berengar II, King of Italy from 950 - 961.

Liudprand, by then a deacon, was sent by Berengar to the court of Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus where he learned Greek and became one of the first Western writers to use the lettering style called Greek minuscule. Liudprand's father and stepfather had both visited Constantinople as ambassadors, and Liudprand praised Byzantine hospitality.

Liudprand also brought gifts to the emperor. In his account of Constantinople in his work Antapodosis ("Retribution"), he says:

I offered, therefore, nine excellent breastplates, seven excellent shields with gilt bosses, two gilt silver cups, swords, spears, skewers, and four carzimasia slaves, to this emperor the most precious of all these things. For the Greeks call a child-eunuch, with testicles and penis cut off, a carzimasium. The merchants of Verdun do this on account of the immense profit they can make, and they are accustomed to bring them to Spain.

Back in Italy, Liudprand and Berengar had a falling out, so Liudprand joined Holy Roman Emperor Otto I, who became king of Italy after the death of Berengar's son Lothair. In 961 Liudprand went to Italy with Otto. A year later he became Bishop of Cremona.

While with Otto he met Recemund, a Mozarabic Bishop of Elvira and ambassador for Abd al-Rahman III. Recemund persuaded Liudprand that he should write a history of his times. The result was the Antapodosis.

In 963, Liudprand attended the Synod of Rome that deposed Pope John XII. His account of the events around that Synod is the only source we have.

In 968 he went to Constantinople again, this time to arrange a marriage between Otto I's son, Otto, and Anna Porphyrogeneta, daughter of (former) emperor Romanus II. This visit was not as happy as his first, for many reasons, and I'll share those and some of his account tomorrow.