The Problem of Tenedos

Tenedos (now a Turkish possession called Bozcaada) is an island in the northeast of the Aegean Sea. It was mentioned in the Iliad and the Odyssey. Virgil's Æneid claims Tenedos is where the Greeks hid their ships to convince the Trojans that they had departed after they dropped off the Trojan Horse. Its location is important as an outpost to see any traffic from the Mediterranean through the Dardanelles to the Sea of Marmara, which gives access to Constantinople and then the Black Sea.

It was possessed by many different entities over the centuries, but we are interested in how Venice held it before the Battle of Chioggia, part of the conflict between Venice and Genoa. The Treaty of Turin in 1381 that ended the war handed Tenedos over to Count Amadeus VI of Savoy, who negotiated the treaty. He then destroyed any fortifications on it so that it could not be used for military purposes. He also evacuated all the Venetians and others, who were to be compensated financially. Genoa was supposed to pay for the effort to destroy the structures.

It was only a decade after the Treaty that concerns arose about the spread of the Ottomans. The island was completely deserted and without any functional buildings, so there were discussions about re-occupying and re-fortifying it.

Genoa and Venice were still the two greatest maritime republics with lots of ships going in and out of Marmara and the Black Sea. Genoa invoked the Treaty of Turin and put its foot down against any occupation by Venice. Venice likewise said they would not agree to any suggestion of shared management. Venice also spoke against granting rights to the papacy, the Knights of St. John, or the Byzantine Empire. (A case of "If I can't play the game my way, I'll prevent anyone else from playing.")

The disputes stretched out until it was too late and the Ottoman Turks had spread to the whole area. Genoa was able to maintain the biggest share of Black Sea trade up to and even after the Fall of Constantinople in 1453.

I mentioned yesterday that Amadeus of Savoy was chosen to mediate between Genoa and Venice because of his ability to deal with conflicts, and that some of those were within his own family. Next time I'll explain that.

The Treaty of Turin

After the final phase of the decades-long war between Genoa and Venice, the man brought in to mediate a permanent truce between the two maritime republics was Amadeus VI, Count of Savoy. Amadeus (1334 - 1383) was respected for his ability to rule fairly and find ways to resolve disputes (many of which were in his own family over the right of succession). 

The Treaty of Turin, or Peace of Turin, had four steps to it that will indicate how complex the political hostilities had been. Turin was in the County of Savoy at the time, and easily reachable by representatives of both Genoa and Venice.

For one, Genoa's dominance in the Black Sea had been threatened by Venice setting up a base on the island of Tenedos, a location that allowed them to threaten Genoese ships from entering the Black Sea. Tenedos had to be turned over to Amadeus. Amadeus removed the Venetian inhabitants and destroyed the fortifications so that it could never be used as a military base.

Genoa was at war with Peter II of Cyprus and Byzantine Emperor John V Paleologos, both of whom were allies of Venice. The Treaty required Venice to sever ties with these two so that they would not be involved in supporting hostility against Genoa. John V's son Andronikos was allied with Genoa, seeking Genoa's help to take over the throne. Venice was required to maintain an embargo against John V until he settled his issues with Andronikos, eliminating the need for Genoa's military support of the son.

Venice also had to forego using their own trading post on the Black Sea. They were forced to share Genoa's ports in the Crimea, and abide by any taxes or duties imposed (fairly!) by Genoa.

Hungary had been an ally of Genoa in the final battle. Venice was required to pay 7000 ducats annually to Hungary. In exchange, Hungary would avoid certain rivers that flowed into the Adriatic, allowing Venice to trade along that part of the Adriatic coast and its rivers. Venice was required to acknowledge that Hungary now owned Dalmatia.

Padua had been on Genoa's side, and the Treaty also saw Venice and Padua make peace with each other.

The decision in the first point about the island of Tenedos had repercussions that were detrimental to Europe's future. I'll explain tomorrow.

Genoa versus Venice, Part 5

The final phase of the decades-long conflict between Genoa and Venice came in 1378 to 1381 when Genoa decided to directly attack Venice instead of fighting naval battles over merchant outposts. Each of the two maritime republics wanted to create and maintain a monopoly in trade in the Black Sea, a plentiful source of fur, grain, slaves (!), and timber.

Genoa had a lot of ports in the Black Sea, and decided it had to rid the area of its greatest rival, Venice. Venice had already lost control of Dalmatia on the east coast of the Adriatic: King Louis I of Hungary had conquered it, and in 1379 had Hungarian forces to the north of Venice itself. Hungary had allied itself with Genoa, as had Padua, who created a block to the west of Venice.

Venice still had the sea accessible to its ships, and still had a strong presence in the Levant. For allies, it had Bernabo Visconti in Milan, whose mercenaries invaded Genoa but were defeated in 1379. Venice also had an ally in Byzantine Emperor John V Paleologos, restored to his throne in 1379 with the help of Venice after Genoa had helped dethrone him a few years earlier.

The two republics' ships harassed each other all over the Aegean and Levant, but ultimately Genoa decided to sail into the lagoon of Venice itself. Genoa (with help from Padua and Hungary) attacked the fishing port of Chioggia (see illustration) on 16 August 1379, overcoming a Venetian garrison of 3000 men. Within days Venice was surrounded by forces allied with Genoa.

The Venetian senate wanted to negotiate peace, but Genoa boasted that it would "bit and bridle the Horses of Saint Mark" (the famous four bronze horses at St. Mark's Basilica). Venice knew this meant a fight to the finish.

A Venetian fleet that had been plundering Genoese ships in the Aegean reached the area on 1 January 1380, blockading the Genoese ships from departing. Genoa suddenly was the one who was trapped. Months of skirmishes to re-take Chioggia went on while Genoa hoped for reinforcements. Venice, more familiar with the shallow waters, conducted night-time attacks on the Genoese ships. Venice also sunk unneeded ships with stones (that could be removed later to re-float the ships) to create barriers that the heavier Genoese galleys could not get past.

The final battle, the Battle of Chioggia, took place on 24 June 1380. Venice used cannons on board their ships for the first time. The blockaded Genoese were starving from lack of supplies, and ultimately surrendered. Venice regained control of Adriatic shipping, and a year later the Peace of Turin was signed.

The Treaty of Turin was mediated by Amadeus VI of Savoy and signed in 1381. It deserves a closer look, but that's for tomorrow.

Genoa versus Venice, Part 4

After the most recent events, the pope attempted to stop the conflict between the two, but they would not be dissuaded from their decades-long hostility.

Venice had fared so poorly that it saw the need for more serious aid than the untrained conscripts it had gathered. It turned to places that might join it against Genoa. The republic of Pisa was approached, but they were also a maritime republic and would not have minded if Genoa and Venice destroyed each other.

Venice also approached the Crown of Aragon (the union of Aragon, Barcelona, Provence, and others by a marriage that produced Alfonso II of Aragon in 1157). Aragon had fought with Genoa over Sardinia, and the current ruler of the Crown of Aragon, Peter IV of Aragon, was happy to aid Venice.

The other surprising ally the Venetians found was the Byzantine Empire. Despite the antipathy toward Venice for their actions during the Fourth Crusade, Genoa's conquest of Chios angered Constantinople. Genoa tried to dissuade the Aragonese and the Byzantines from trusting Venice, to no avail.

Genoa saw the odds against them growing, and so they made some bold moves. Existing taxes were diverted to the war effort. A loan of 300,000 lira was forced out of wealthy banks with a promise of substantial returns. All this went to the construction of a larger fleet. The Genoese in the port of Pera across from Constantinople requested aid from their Muslim neighbor, the Ottoman sultan Orhan Ghazi.

In July 1351, a fleet of 60 ships, each holding 180 men, sailed from Genoa. They first attacked a Venetian ally in the Aegean, the Duchy of the Archipelago, capturing its duke and plundering Naxos. The fleet, under the command of admiral Paganino Doria, failed to find the main Venetian or Aragonese fleet to engage them in battle. Doria sailed to Pera where there was a Venetian blockade. When the Genoese approached, Venice sank some of their own ships to prevent capture and fled.

There were battles all over the Mediterranean and Aegean, with no side gaining a clear upper hand. Finally, late in the day on 13 February 1352, with only two hours of light, the fleets were in the same place: southeast of the Bosporus. The Genoese fleet had to face the combined Venetian, Aragonese, and Byzantine fleets.

The Battle of the Bosporus was chaotic, especially since they fought past sundown. Both sides lost many ships and men, and only the withdrawal of the Aragonese and Venetians allowed the Genoese to claim a Pyrrhic victory. Both sides spent weeks nursing their wounds. The Genoese anchored on Orhan's side of the Bosporus. When he offered to continue the battle on 3 March, the other side declined. The Aragonese and Venetian fleets departed, leaving the Byzantines to accept the fact that they would have to live with the Genoese as neighbors.

There was more fighting over Sardinia following all this, but that was between Genoa and Aragon. Twenty years later was the final conflict of the wars between Venice and Genoa, in which Genoa decided to invade Venice itself. See you tomorrow.

Genoa versus Venice, Part 3

After the Battle of Curzola in 1299, in which Venice lost dozens of ships and thousands of men against Genoa, Venice was subdued for decades. Genoa maintained dominance in Black Sea trade, but Venice still had a presence there and throughout the Mediterranean. Constantinople's dislike of Venice helped Genoa establish a merchant colony across the Golden Horn from the city. This colony, Pera, became so powerful a trading town that it pulled trade away from Constantinople itself. 

In 1345, rebel Genoese called the Grimaldi were in Monaco, and Genoa wanted to take Monaco. A fleet was assembled for that purpose. It caused the Grimaldi to abandon Monaco for Marseille, and the fleet needed a new goal. Admiral Simone Vignoso led 29 galleys toward the Aegean Sea to deal with Venetian presences.

Vignoso learned that Humbert II of Viennois intended to capture the island of Chios (its ancient citadel is pictured above) and use it as a base to attack Turks as part of something called the Second Smyrniote Crusade. Humbert asked Vignoso to aid him in the venture, but Vignoso refused. Humbert was allied with Venice, and Vignoso wouldn't do anything to potentially aid Venice or its allies.

Vignoso chose to attack Humbert's fleet, taking horses and equipment, and capturing Chios. This move angered the Venetians and the Byzantines (who owned Chios), as well as Pope Clement VI who had called for the Smyrniote Crusade. Constantinople was dealing with a civil war, and so could not afford to worry overmuch about Chios.

In August 1350 Venice declared war on Genoa. At the end of August, 35 ships set sail for the Aegean. This was after a few devastating years of the Black Death, causing both Genoa and Venice to lose up to half their citizenry. The galleys were less well-manned than they would have been just a few years before, so Venice conscripted men from their other territories. This meant they went into a naval battle with inexperienced men who had not trained for war.

In the first encounter between the two navies, Venice attacked a merchant fleet, but once some of the ships were captured, the undisciplined conscripts abandoned fighting to plunder the Genoese ships, allowing the rest of the merchant fleet to escape and spread the word of the attack.

The senate in Venice was not happy with the behavior of the conscripts, but realized it could not dissuade them from desiring plunder without the risk of them mutinying. Riches had been one of the things offered to them during the drafting process.

The Genoese ships that had escaped joined with more at Chios. This small fleet then went and attacked the city of Negroponte, a Venetian base. Its Venetian governor fled (and was later tried for cowardice).

We'll see what happened after starting tomorrow.

Genoa versus Venice, Part 2

After the War of Saint Sabas between Genoa and Venice, a generation went by without outright war. In 1291, the Fall of Acre lost the Crusaders an important base, and both Venice and Genoa were desperate to expand their influence in other parts of the Levant and the Black Sea.

Skirmishes started in 1294 by Genoese ships harassing Venetian ships in the Aegean Sea. Genoese also harassed Venetians in Constantinople, emboldened by the Byzantine hostility to Venetians because of the events of the Fourth Crusade. In 1296 Venice openly declared war on Genoa.

Venetian ships threatened the Genoese presence in the Black Sea after capturing the Golden Horn, Constantinople's inner harbor. After, the fleet sailed into the Black Sea and Crimea, capturing a large port, Genoa retaliated by using their fleet to raid Venetian ships closer to home, in the Adriatic.

Venice sent a fleet of 95 ships into the Adriatic. They encountered the Genoese fleet between the Dalmatian coast (now Croatia) and the island of Curzola. The fighting went very poorly for the Venetians, who ran their ships aground while trying to capture the Genoese ships. Of the 95 Venetian ships, 83 were destroyed, the rest fleeing.

Casualties were heavy on both sides. Genoa had many casualties, and the son of Genoese admiral Lamba Doria was killed, about which Doria said "Throw him overboard into the deep sea. What better resting place can we give him?"

The Venetians lost not only 7,000 to 9,000 men and dozens of ships; one of their number taken prisoner was a widely traveled man named Marco Polo. While in a Genoese prison, he wrote about his travels.

A treaty between the two maritime republics was signed the following year. The uneasy peace lasted for two generations this time. Venice had come out on top in the first war, Genoa in the second. The third time would see no clear victor and heavy losses for both sides. I'll tell you about the War of the Straits next time.

Genoa versus Venice, Part 1

Four times between 1258 and 1381, the rivalry between the maritime republics of Genoa and Venice reached a tipping point that turned into military action. Both had extensive trade operations in the Mediterranean and the Black Sea and were largely equal in power, until 1204.

In 1204, the events of the Fourth Crusade led to Venice having significant political influence in Constantinople, and therefore the Byzantine Empire. Although the Venetians were driven from Constainople, it still took several decades for the intense competition between the two republics to turn into a war.

There was land in the coastal city of Acre—owned by the Abbey of Saint Sabas (illustration)—that was claimed by both Venice and Genoa. In 1257, a Venetian admiral broke through the Acre harbor chain (strung to prevent unwanted ships) and destroyed several Genoese ships that were harbored there. Genoa had a fortification at Acre, and their crossbowmen fired at the attackers. Venice had siege engines, which they brought to bear, blockading Acre for more than a year.

The Genoese had the support of the Knights Hospitaller in the city, as well as the Byzantine Empire (Michael Paleologos had just driven out the Venetians). Venice meanwhile had the Knights Templar on its side. Both sides hired Muslim mercenaries; these were frequently Turcopoles, "sons of Turks," who were light cavalry often employed by Byzantine states. Genoa made an alliance with Baibars, the sultan of the Egyptian Mamluks, but his promised fleet never appeared. Genoa also approached Michael Paleologos, who was happy to provide support against the Venetians.

Efforts to mediate the conflict by a local lord failed, and a naval battle took place. The Genoese navy of about 50 ships was overrun by the Venetian navy. The Genoese abandoned Acre and retreated to Tyre, a city from which the Venetians had been evicted in 1256.

The War of Saint Sabas (1256 - 1270) annoyed the pope, who feared a Mongol or Muslim attack that would be successful because too many Christian resources were being wasted fighting each other. Pope Gregory X, along with France and Sicily, pressured the two republics to agree to the Peace of Cremona in 1270, although Genoa did not get their part of Acre back until 1288.

The Venetians came out ahead in this war. A generation later, however, Genoa got the upper hand. I'll explain tomorrow.

Genoese Trade

After the Crusades gave it the opportunity to start creating trading posts in the Eastern Mediterranean, the maritime republic of Genoa began to expand its influence rapidly. In fact, the town became officially the self-governing commune "Republic of Genoa" in 1099, in the immediate aftermath of the First Crusade.

Its prominence in maritime trade earned it many nicknames: la Superba ("the Superb One"; the name given to it by Petrarch), la Dominante ("The Dominant One"), la Dominante dei mari ("the Dominant of the Seas"), and la Repubblica dei magnifici ("the Republic of the Magnificents").

What trade items made Genoa so powerful? Wine and olive oil went all over the Mediterranean. Because of their involvement in the Black Sea, they had access to some of the great grain producers of Europe. Spices and silks came from the countries to the east. Silk thread was imported and woven into cloth in Genoa, then exported.

They also made their own type of cloth. The Genoese navy and ship builders needed sturdy material that could be worn wet or dry. In response to this need, Genoa produced a fustian cloth referred to as being of "medium quality and of reasonable cost." "Fustian" was a Latin word (fustaneum) for this type of heavy cotton cloth; originally with a linen warp (the vertical threads held together in the loom) and a cotton weft (the threads passed back and forth by the shuttle). "Fustian" can be applied to corduroy, velvet, or moleskin.

The Genoese navy used this material for trousers because it was durable and wore well even when wet, unlike wool. This "jeans" material was also exported, and it is suspected that the name "jeans" comes from Gênes, the French word for Genoa.

Genoa also exported salt, salami, prosciutto, and cheeses. There were, however, other maritime republics that dealt in the same goods. One of these other republics, Venice, became such a rival that the two republics went to war. We'll start talking about that tomorrow.

Genoa

We've touched on Genoa and the possible origin of its name before.

Genoa is on the far northwestern coast of Italy, and archaeological evidence suggests the area has been inhabited since at least the 4th millennium BCE. The original inhabitants were the Ligures, who traded with Etruscans and Greeks, showing that they already had maritime trade. The waters between the Genoese coast and Corsica are called the Ligurian Sea after these early inhabitants.

Despite occasional setbacks, like being destroyed by Carthage during the Second Punic War (218 - 201 BCE), Genoa grew in population and power.

Genoa was "in the news" frequently during the early Middle Ages. It was occupied by the Ostrogoths after the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century. The Byzantines made it the seat of their vicar when they defeated the Goths. The invasion of the Lombards into Italy in 568 saw the bishop of Milan fleeing to Genoa for safety. After Augustine of Hippo died, his body was transported to Genoa in 725. Genoa was annexed by the Franks when they conquered the Lombards. It was thoroughly destroyed in 934-35 by a Fatimid fleet. In 1098, supposedly the ashes of John the Baptist were brought to Genoa, who considered him their patron saint.

By 1100 it was growing fast and establishing itself as an independent city-state on the Italian peninsula. The bishop of Genoa was its head, with the pope as the ultimate ruler, but administrative power was actually wielded by local consuls.

Involvement in the Crusades allowed Genoa to create trading posts in the Eastern Mediterranean, the Levant, and in Northern Africa. In Genoa Cathedral is a flat dish made of green glass that was brought back from the Levant after the Crusades. It is claimed to be the Holy Grail, the dish used by Jesus during the Last Supper.

It began to spread its influence as a maritime merchant town. Along with Amalfi, Pisa, Venice, and others, Genoa was known as a "Maritime Republic." An old saying—Genuensis ergo mercator ("A Genoese therefore a merchant")—indicated that Genoa was synonymous with maritime trade.

In fact, it was one of the most powerful maritime republic from the 11th century up until 1800CE. Tomorrow we'll look at some of its trade deals, and what it exported, including something that almost everyone wears to this day.

Buscarello de Ghizolfi and Family

Yesterday's post mentioned Buscarello de Ghizolfi, a man from Genoa who served a few Mongol leaders as their ambassador to Europe, speaking to kings of France and England and others to suggest an alliance. The alliance was to cooperate against the growing threat of Islam, and to help overthrow the Egyptian Mamluk regime. (Those goals were never realized.)

Buscarello was part of a Jewish family of merchants who were prominent through the late Middle Ages and early Renaissance. Prior to going to Persia to serve in the Ilkhanate, we see mentions of Buscarello in 1274 where he is involved with arming a galley (the city-states of Italy were frequently at odds with each other as well as non-Italians; note the Genoese-Venetian war that Marco Polo was involved in).

A few years later, he and his brothers are known to have been in Cilician Armenia, which is likely where he came to the attention of Mongol leadership. He joined Arghun Khan of the Ilkhanate as an officer, and eventually was named ambassador. He carried out several diplomatic missions for Arghun and his sons, Ghazan and Öljaitü (the illustration is a letter from Öljaitü to Philip IV of France). He even named his son "Argone," after Arghun.

One journey involved Buscarello's nephew, Corrado de Ghizolfi, going ahead to request safe passage for an embassy to Iran.

Buscarello drops out of the public record by 1317. The family remained active in the Black Sea as part of Genoese trade. In 1419, Simeone de Ghizolfi married Bikhakhanim, a princess of Tmutarakan, a medieval principality of Kievan Rus. The translation of her name suggests that she was a descendant of Genghis Khan. Simeone became ruler of Tmutarakan through this marriage. As late as 1482 a descendant, Zacharias de Ghizolfi, was still ruling there.

This gave Genoa a lot of influence on the Black Sea. Genoa, as mentioned above, was a significant rival of Venice for control of maritime trade. Let's look at it's history next time.

Mongol Partners

There was a surprising amount of connection between the Mongol Empire and culture and the people of Western Europe. Part of this was because of the traditional Mongol tolerance for other religions and cultures. It did not hurt that the Mongol Empire saw Islam as a threat and was willing to form an alliance with the Christian West to hold back the spread of Muslims.

Although a permanent alliance was never formed, there was plenty of collaboration. We've recently looked at the merchant brothers, the Polos. Let's talk about some of the men who worked with Ghazan of the Ilkhanate.

A letter from Pope Boniface VIII to the Archbishop of Nicosia refers to Isol the Pisan as "Vicar of Syria and the Holy Land for Ghazan the Emperor of the Tartars." Isol seems to have been at the court of Ghazan for several years, rising to be Ghazan's ambassador to Cyprus. (It was not uncommon for the Khans to employ outsiders to various positions; Marco Polo is an example.) Isol had been around for a while in Persia: when Ghazan's younger brother Öljaitü was baptized a Christian, Isol stood as godfather. (Öljaitü did not stay Christian: after succeeding Ghazan, he changed in 1310 to Shi'a Islam.) (Ghazan and Öljaitü  are together in the illustration.) 

A man from Genoa served as ambassador to Europe from 1289 to 1305, working for Öljaitü, his brother Ghazan, and before them their father Arghun. Buscarello de Ghizolfi traveled back to Europe on Arghun's behalf to try to form an alliance. Buscarello carried messages for Philip IV of France and Edward I of England saying that, were they to bring their armies to his aid, Arghun would meet them with 20,000 to 30,000 horses and supplies to help retake the Holy Land. If Egypt could be conquered, Arghun would deliver Jerusalem to the West.

Edward agreed, but did not commit to a firm date for the endeavor. Buscarello returned to Persia with an English ambassador, Sir Geoffrey de Langley. A second attempt a few years later by Öljaitü to invite France and England to join him amounted to nothing.

Still, the commerce between Europeans and lands to the East brought many innovations such as gunpowder and paper currency, silk, different foods and spice, etc.

I want to talk a little more about Buscarello and his family tomorrow.

Mongol-Christian Alliances

Ghazan Khan (1271 - 1304) was not the first Mongol leader to communicate with Christians, but he set about to firm up an alliance to deal with what he considered a greater issue: Egyptian Mamluks. This was the time of the Crusades, and therefore Christian military groups were all over the Holy land and nearby. Armenia also had a Christian state.

Unfortunately, at this point the goal of the Crusades, Jerusalem, was no longer under Christian control. The plan was to unite all these forces with the Mongol Empire to conquer Egypt, whereupon (it was agreed) that the Christians would be given control of Jerusalem.

With plans in place, Ghazan marched to Syria in October 1299, where he was joined by the army of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia (which a few years later would have its own problem with Egypt).The Armenians also had some Knights Templar and Hospitallers among them. They defeated an army of Egyptian Mamluks at the battle of Wadi al-Khazandar.

Aleppo had already been taken, and Damascus surrendered soon after. The majority of Ghazan's army then retreated for the rest of the winter, going north where they could find grazing for their horses. The Mamluks sent a delegation to Ghazan (who had recently converted to Islam) at his camp (see illustration) in January 1300 to speak to him, saying:

"You claim that you are a Muslim and you have with you Mu'adhdhins, Muftis, Imams and Shaykhs but you invaded us and reached our country for what? Although your father and your grandfather, Hulegu were non-believers, they did not attack us and they kept their promise. But you promised and broke your promise."

A Mongol-Christian plan was made for late 1301. Ghazan wrote to Pope Boniface VIII to send troops and priests so that the Holy Land could become a Frankish state. He also wrote in 1302 to the pope and to Charles II of Anjou. Unfortunately, troops did not arrive.

Ghazan failed to conquer the Mamluks after several battles, and gave up after a decisive loss in April 1303. When he died on 11 May 1304, his brother Öljaitü succeeded him.

Since the title of this post is the Mongol-Christian Alliance, I want to talk more specifically about some of the Christians and Europeans who worked directly with Ghazan and the Mongol Empire. See you tomorrow.

Ghazan Khan

A direct descendant of Genghis Khan, Ghazan Khan ruled the Mongol Empire's Ilkhanate (southwestern part of the empire, what now is Iran) and lived from 1271 to 11 May 1304. No, he did not have a long life, or a long reign, but he accomplished a lot out of necessity.

He had, as was customary for Mongol Khans, several wives, but he first came up in this blog in yesterday's post when we learn that he married a princess, Kököchin, who had been chosen for Ghazan's father by Kublai Khan himself. Kököchin's journey took so long that her intended, Arghun Khan, was dead by the time she arrived, and Ghazan married her himself. (It probably pleased her that Ghazan was the same age as she.)

On the death of his father in 1291, rule of the Ilkhanate went to Ghazan's uncle, Gaykhatu. One of the innovations during Gaykhatu's reign was the introduction of paper money to the Ilkhanate, but Ghazan rejected the idea in his territory of Khorasan, because the humidity of the region made the paper unfeasible.

Gaykhatu was killed in 1295, probably by the same people who killed Ghazan's father in order to put Gaykhatu in charge. That faction chose Ghazan's cousin Baydu to take over and be a figurehead. Ghazan marched on Baydu, who after some battles offered co-rulership to Ghazan. Ghazan rejected this, but was concerned because Baydu had a much larger army.

A powerful noble named Nowruz urged Ghazan to continue to attack Baydu and become ruler. Nowruz pledged his support, but with a condition: Ghazan had to convert to Islam. The Mongol attitude toward religion was one of curiosity and tolerance. Ghazan had been raised as an Eastern Christian, and had also been tutored by a Chinese Buddhist monk. Ghazan did not hold religion as high a priority as politics, so he made the change. Their political bid was successful, and Ghazan (seen on a horse in the illustration) became the next Khan of the Ilkhanate.

The traditional Mongol tolerance for other religions went out the window. Nowruz led persecutions against Buddhists and Christians. Churches were looted and destroyed. Despite this, Ghazan was willing to work with Western Europeans against a common enemy: the Egyptian Mamluks. We will talk about those alliances tomorrow.

Escorting a Princess

Arghun Khan (1258 - 1291) was the son of Abaqa Khan and ruler of the Ilkhanate, in the southwestern part of the Mongol Empire. Arghun (shown here with one of his brides) wanted a new bride after the death of his favorite, Bolgana (who had also been his father's consort), and he asked his great-uncle Kublai Khan to provide him with one.

Kublai chose the 17-year-old Kököchin, of the Chinese Yuan dynasty. Her escort to the Ilkhanate included three of Kublai's envoys and a young Venetian named Marco Polo. Marco, along with his uncles, had been "guests" of Kublai for many years. Kublai did not want to lose the company of his foreign guests, but his envoys insisted. In the words of Marco Polo from his account:

The overland road from Peking to Tabriz was not only of portentous length for such a tender charge, but was imperiled by war, so the envoys desired to return by sea. Tartars in general were strangers to all navigation; and the envoys, much taken with the Venetians, and eager to profit by their experience, especially as Marco had just then returned from his Indian mission, begged the Khan as a favour to send the three Firinghis* in their company. He consented with reluctance, but, having done so, fitted the party out nobly for the voyage, charging the Polos with friendly messages for the potentates of Europe, including the King of England.

There were problems on the voyage

involving long detentions on the coast of Sumatra, and in the South of India, ...; and two years or upwards passed before they arrived at their destination in Persia. The three hardy Venetians survived all perils, and so did the lady, who had come to look on them with filial regard; but two of the three envoys, and a vast proportion of the suite, had perished by the way.

Not only had some of the escorts died along the way, but so had Arghun by the time his anticipated bride had arrived. In fact, he had died before the escorts had even set out, a fact they did not know until they had arrived.

The trip was not wasted, however, because Arghun had a son, Ghazan, who was about the same age as the princess Kököchin. Although not as handsome as his father, he was in many ways an excellent ruler and war-leader. He also had good diplomatic relations with Europeans and the Crusaders. Let's talk more about Ghazan Khan tomorrow.

*Firinghis or farang is Persian and originally intended to refer to Franks, lumping all Western Europeans together. 

The Polos and Kublai

After spending time at the court of Kublai Khan, Niccolò and Maffeo Polo tried to get home to Venice and to deliver a letter from Kublai to the pope. A nice direct route might have been through Constantinople, but the city was hostile to Venetians after the return of Byzantine rule by Michael Paleologus. They went to the Holy Land instead and Acre, capital of the Kingdom of Jerusalem.

The papal legate, Teobaldo Visconti, was in Acre for the Ninth Crusade. He made them aware that Pope Clement IV had died while they were in the East. He advised them to go home and wait for an election. They took ship for Venice, where Niccolò got to know his now-teenaged son he had left behind when he started his trip with Maffeo.

What they and the papal legate could not have known was that there would not be a new pope until 1271, when the compromise candidate was elected in absentia. The summons went to none other than Teobaldo Visconti to return home and assume the Chair of Peter! Now Pope Gregory X, he accepted the letter from the Khan.

At his request, the Polo brothers (now along with Niccolò's son) began the return trip to the court of Kublai Khan along with two Dominican friars, Niccolò de Vicence and William of Tripoli. The Polos reached the court of Kublai Khan in 1273, but the Dominicans were no longer with them: they had supposedly reversed course out of fear. (William ultimately went to the Holy Land as a papal diplomat.)

Marco delighted the Khan, who made him an emissary and promoted his travel all over. Marco brought back many stories of the things he had seen. The Polos asked several times for permission to leave court and return home, but Kublai enjoyed their company so much that it was 17 years until he allowed them to depart.

He allowed them to go with one final mission: to escort a Mongol princess to her betrothed. I'll tell you that story tomorrow.

The Polo Family

Marco Polo didn't get to China on his own; he was taken there as a young man by his father and uncle, who had been there before. Why? Because they were Venetian merchants looking for goods to bring home.

Niccolò Polo (c.1230 - c.1294) left his infant son at home and went with his brother Maffeo to Constantinople, where they lived in the Venetian quarter and established a trading post. Venetians had power in Constantinople because of their role in establishing the Latin Empire during the Fourth Crusade in 1204.

The brothers were aware of hostility toward Venetians, however, and left Constantinople in 1259/60, providentially just before it was recaptured by the Byzantine Michael Paleologus who killed or drove out the Venetians. The Polos started a trading post in Soldaia (now Sudak) in Crimea, on the north shore of the Black Sea.

At that time it was part of the Golden Horde, a Mongol state. Not wishing to return to Constantinople, they continued eastward. The spent a year at the compound of Berke Khan, ruler of the Horde, and agreed to sell items on Berke's behalf. Because, however, of hostility between Berke and his cousin Hulagu, they left that area and went farther east, reaching Bukhara (in modern Uzbekistan), where they stayed for a few years.

A man traveling from Hulagu to meet with Kublai Khan invited them to go along with him. They agreed, and in 1266 they reached the court of Kublai Khan in what is now Beijing. According to the book written by Marco years later, the two brothers were tasked by Kublai to carry a letter to the pope. The letter requested 100 men who could teach about Christianity and the Western culture. He also wanted oil from the lamp in the Holy Sepulchre. To ease their travels, he gave them a 3'x12' golden tablet, a pass that allowed the bearer food and lodging and safe passage in the Mongol Empire. (The illustration shows the granting of the tablet from a 15th century version of Marco's book.)

They made their way to Acre, capital of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. There was a problem delivering the letter to the pope: there was no pope at the time, there being a long pause between the death of one and the election of the next.

Tomorrow we'll talk about the delivery, the fulfillment of Kublai's request, and the return to Kublai's court.

The Book of Marvels

When Marco Polo returned to Venice after two decades of traveling in the East, he signed up to join the war between Venice and Genoa. Incarcerated in a Genoese prison, he began talking to a fellow inmate, Rustichello da Pisa, known for writing romances. The result was Il Milione ("The Million"), also known in English as The Book of the Marvels of the World, or simply The Travels of Marco Polo. It offered details of his travels from 1271 to 1295 and his time at the court of Kublai Khan.

His fantastical stories about what he saw drew amazement and skepticism in equal measure. One theory of the title Il Milione is that it was considered to contain a million lies. Modern scholars are willing to accept that he is interpreting to the best of his ability what he truly saw (or was told) in his travels. We cannot be certain what may have been embellished by Rustichello, although it is clear that he re-used some passages from his previous works (mentioned here).

In 1302 it was translated into Latin as Iter Marci Pauli Veneti, "Travels of the Venetian Marco Polo," by Francesco Pipino, a Dominican archivist. He stood behind what was in the book (although he himself had not raveled widely, only going as far as Constantinople several years later). That Latin edition was popular for years; one edition was owned by Christopher Columbus, whose copy with his notes is shown in the illustration.

Recent research suggests that Pipino's translation was not just a pet project: he might have been given the assignment as an official project of the Dominicans. The Dominican Order wished (as did many orders) to convert all folk everywhere to Christianity, and Polo's writing gave them an itinerary.

Recent communications between the popes and the Mongols were not always friendly, but prior to Marco's trip Kublai Khan had requested of Marco's father and uncle that they carry a letter to the pope requesting missionaries to teach about Roman Christianity. This correspondence also gave fuel to the idea that the East was ready for missionary work. There was even talk of a Christian-Mongol alliance against the spread of Islam.

That alliance did not bear fruit, but trade between Europe and Asia was a welcome idea for everyone, and merchants like Marco's father and uncle made lucrative deals. In fact, the elder Polos are often neglected in stories about Marco and his travels, which makes them—Niccolò and Maffeo by name—excellent subjects for this blog. Let's talk about the men responsible for Marco Polo'd fame next time.

Marco and Kublai

Marco Polo was not the first European to visit China—far from it—but he was the first to write a detailed account of his time there. And he had lots of time and opportunity to travel there and get to know different ethnic groups, their customs, and the geography of the far eastern lands.

He wasn't even the first in his family to go to China. His merchant father and uncle had been to the court of Kublai Khan, and took Marco with them on a later trip. Marco was young, but Kublai was very impressed by his personality and his knowledge.

The intellectually curious Kublai was pre-disposed to be accepting of different religions and cultures. In fact, when Marco's father and uncle returned from their first trip to Kublai's court, they brought with them a letter from Kublai to the pope, requesting 100 missionaries and oil from the lamp of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem. (The three did bring oil as requested.)

Kublai Khan appointed Marco to be his foreign emissary, and sent him on trips all over China, as well as to (according to Marco's account) India and Indonesia, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and Vietnam. In all, he spent 24 years traveling on behalf of Kublai Khan.

When he returned home to Venice, the city was at war with Genoa. Marco joined the fighting, and wound up imprisoned by the Genoese. While there he dictated his "Book of Marvels" to a fellow prisoner, Rustichello da Pisa, a professional romance author.

Rustichello took liberties, and in some places used the same descriptions and passages from his own writing to describe some of Marco's experiences. The description of Marco arriving at Kublai's court matches the description Rustichello used years earlier in an Arthurian romance in which Tristan comes to Arthur's court.

The book created a stir, and debates over its truthfulness. It had a popular supporter, however, in the Dominican Order. Tomorrow I'll explain more about the books's reception and the interest of the Dominicans.

Chinese Technology

Now we approach the part that everyone knows about Kublai Khan even if they don't know anything about Kublai Khan. Kublai was emperor of China when Marco Polo visited the place, traveling with his merchant uncles.

Marco wrote about the wonders that he had seen in China, and those wonders were thanks to Kublai's conquest of the southern Song Dynasty. Let's take a look at some of the technological advancements of the Song that were notable to anyone visiting Kublai's empire.

They had printing presses with movable type long before Gutenberg. Gutenberg's innovation was making type out of metal, while the Chinese used porcelain.

The Song had an astronomical clock tower that was powered hydraulically. The illustration here is from the original 11th-century book describing it, showing the mechanics that run the armillary sphere on top.

Air power was also known to them, since they introduced windmills to China. Water was another place where they innovated, especially in ship-building. The Song had paddle-wheel ships.

Prior to the Song defeat under Kublai, that had successfully defended themselves with weapons powered by gunpowder. They also had flame-throwers, a pumping machine that would spread flaming oil that could not be doused by water. Thy used land mines against the Mongols, and rockets.

Money printed on paper was another marvel noted by Marco Polo, and helped boost the economy. The printing involved employing thousands in mints all over the vast country. The use of paper extended to envelopes, paper bags for tea leaves (for storage, not for steeping), and even toilet paper.

These are some of the sights that were strange to travelers from Western Europe. Let's talk tomorrow about Marco and Kublai, their meeting and their relationship.

Kublai and China

With the Toluid Civil War concluded, Kublai Khan still had troubles dealing with the other khanates descended from Genghis, but I'm going to talk about his actions toward China. He had control over much of northern Han China, but the southern Song Dynasty had been unwilling to submit. In earlier fighting, an agreement had been reached that Kublai would not cross the Yangtze River, but he wanted more.

Kublai offered some autonomy to the Song Emperor Lizong, if only Lizong would surrender his dynasty. Lizong imprisoned the emissary sent to deliver this offer, and rebuffed a delegation sent to ask for the emissary's release. So Kublai had two siege machine experts prepare to destroy fortresses in Song China.

In order to be sen as a traditional Chinese emperor and gain the loyalty of millions, he started calling his regime Dai Yuan, Chinese for "Great Beginnings." He moved his capital to Khanbaliq, which is now called Beijing. Of course conservative and traditional Mongols were outraged at the changes. Many followers turned from him and looked to Kaidu of the Ögedei Khanate.

Kublai's war with the Song Dynasty lasted two decades. The imperial family surrendered in 1276, but others in southern China kept fighting. They were finally conquered in 1279 after a naval battle on 19 March. For the first time, China was a united country under a non-Chinese ruler. Kublai was generous to the remains of the imperial family: they were given tax-free property in the capital, and Kublai's wife looked after their well-being. (Kublai did eventually send the child emperor Gong away o become a monk.)

With the absorption of the Song Dynasty, Kublai's empire now included many technological advancements, the ones that Marco Polo commented on in the record of his travels. Tomorrow we'll bring Kublai, the Song, and Marco together.

The Civil War

In the lead up to the Toluid Civil War, Kublai Khan had the upper hand. He controlled most of the supply lines that would have helped his younger brother, Ariq Böke, and had resources coming from China.

One of Kublai's first successes was against an ally of Ariq in northwestern China, from whom he captured food supplies intended for Ariq's army. He also drove Ariq supporters out of their homes in several towns. Ariq's attempts to attack Kublai's territory in southwestern China was turned away by Kublai's Chinese allies, whom he rewarded handsomely with gifts of silk and silver and with administrative positions.

Ariq's allies abandoned him, except for one: Alghu of the Chagatai Khanate (Chagatai was a son of Genghis Khan; Alghu was a grandson of Chagatai). Ariq named Alghu head of the Chagatai Khanate after the previous khan died, and the Chagatai Khanate became an important source of supplies for Ariq's army.

In 1261, Ariq and Kublai's armies met in battle, during which Ariq called for a retreat. Ten days later he returned and engaged a small contingent of Kublai's army, but could not achieve victory. By this time, Kublai's army had been advancing and occupying much of Mongolia. Ariq asked for help from Alghu, but Alghu saw that the victor of the civil war was likely to be Kublai, and changed allegiance.

Back in southern China, a rebellion took place that required Kublai to take his main force to quell it. With the immediate threat of Kublai gone, Ariq chose to attack his once-ally, Alghu. Ariq's attack on the Chagatai Khanate disillusioned several of his supporters. Ürüng, son of the previous Grand Khan Möngke, had been an ally, but he left Ariq and pledged his loyalty to Kublai instead.

Ariq, running out of allies, and lacking resources to feed and arm an army, turned himself over to Kublai in 1264 at Shangdu (also known as Xanadu), ending four years of hostility. Ariq was imprisoned and ignored by Kublai for an entire year.

Kublai purged the government of officials who were loyal to Ariq, executing some. He called a kurultai to decide what Ariq's fate should be and to officially make himself Grand Khan. Of the four Khanates of Genghis Khan's four sons, none of the others attended this kurultai called by the Toluid Khanate. Two of the khanates were fighting each other, and the Ögedei Khanate was still angry that the Grand Khan position had been maneuvered away from them years earlier.

Kublai would have to deal with other internal threats from those who did not fully accept his role as Grand Khan. Although the four khanates would have ties of trade and culture, they no longer united for military purposes. A united Mongolian Empire was no longer a possible future.

Ariq Böke died of unknown causes while still in prison, in 1266.

Kublai saw soon that his influence on the other khanates was limited, though not non-existent. Tomorrow we'll see him turn to making China his empire.

The Toluid Civil War

When Kublai found out that his younger brother Ariq Böke was making plans to become Grand Khan while Kublai was off subduing the Song Dynasty in China, he was not pleased. Normally, the kurultai that met to decide the next ruler was attended by prominent members of the families of the sons of Genghis Khan (both Kublai and Ariq—pictured here—were grandsons of Genghis through Genghis' youngest son, Tolui).

I suppose the problem was that both boys' uncle Möngke, who had been Grand Khan until his death in 1259, did not nominate a successor. Kublai called a kurultai at Kaiping in China—the first time a kurultai to choose a Grand Khan was called outside of Mongol territory. At it, Kublai was elected Grand Khan. Ariq, who had been making alliances with powerful Mongol chiefs, called a kurultai in the Mongol capital Karakoram that elected him Grand Khan.

Their brother Hulagu wanted to support Kublai, but was detained fighting Mamluks and then dealing with hostility from Berke, current ruler of the Golden Horde (begun by all three brothers' uncle, Batu Khan).

Kublai had Chinese resources behind him. He had been an able administrator, and he promised the Chinese that he could be a benevolent ruler who united Chinese, Mongols, and Koreans. He made grand promises to his potential supporters: lower taxes, rule based on Chinese precedent, and that his era would be one of Zhongtong, "moderate rule."

The Song people in southern China offered no help, but northern China supported him. He had plenty of resources and managed to control three of the four supply lines to Ariq in the capital of Karakoram. Kublai advanced on Karakoram, and Ariq retreated in the only logical direction he had available to him, the way toward the Yenesei River valley in the northwest. Winter set in, forcing Ariq and Kublai to camp and wait for spring.

The Song people of southern China chose this time to rebel, crossing the agreed-upon border of the Yangtze River and recovering some of the territory that Kublai had recently taken. Kublai sent a Chinese diplomat to try to settle the matter, but the diplomat was imprisoned by the Song.

While waiting through the cold season, Kublai continued to gather supplies and recruit soldiers, preparing for civil war. Tomorrow we'll see the results of the fighting.

Kublai, the Early Years

Probably the best-known Khan to modern audiences after Genghis Khan is Kublai Khan, the one we hear about because of Marco Polo.

Kublai was the second son of Sorghaghtani Beki by Tolui, Genghis' youngest son. He was born 23 September 1215. He was raised by a Buddhist nurse at his grandfather's suggestion, a woman whom he treated well all her life.

As a nine-year-old, he was part of a ritual that Genghis performed on his grandsons following a hunt. Kublai and his brother Möngke had killed a rabbit and an antelope, and his grandfather smeared fat from the animals onto the boys' middle fingers. He made a special pronouncement about Kublai: "The words of this boy Kublai are full of wisdom, heed them well – heed them all of you."

After 1236, Kublai was given an estate with 10,000 households, but left local administrators in charge. Those local administrators filled their own pockets with heavy taxes that caused many to leave the territory, which reduced the available tax base. With tax revenue dwindling, Kublai sent new officials picked by his mother who made changes that restored the financial health of his estate.

Kublai loved to learn, and was fascinated by Chinese culture and Buddhism. In 1242 he invited China's leading Buddhist monk to be his guest in Karakorum (the Mongol capital) and teach him more about Buddhism. That monk introduced Kublai to the Buddhist monk Liu Bingzhong, an artist, poet, and mathematician whom Kublai made his advisor. Kublai was known to employ and entertain people of all nationalities.

When Möngke became Grand Khan, Kublai was made viceroy over northern China. He was an able administrator, boosting both agricultural output and social welfare spending. Local Chinese warlords praised him for this. Kublai heard that Tibetan monks had skills at healing. He made a Tibetan Buddhist the director of the Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs in his administration.

Trouble arose when those jealous of Kublai's power complained to Möngke that Kublai was building his own empire. Möngke sent tax inspectors who went over the "books" and found 142 violations and executed some of the Chinese officials responsible. One of the inspectors was a close friend of Kublai's younger brother, Ariq Böke. (Ariq would become real trouble later.)

In 1258, Möngke asked Kublai to help with an attack on Sichuan. Although Kublai was not required to assist personally (he suffered from gout), he accompanied the army anyway. This meant he was present when word came that Möngke had died. He kept the news secret and continued with the attack. He negotiated with the enemy's representatives and agreed that the Yangtze River would be the border between Mongols and the Song dynasty, in exchange for 200,000 taels (1 tael = 50 grams) of silver and 200,000 bolts of silk annually.

Of course, even though the army and the Song dynasty did not know that Möngke had died, others knew. The debate over the next Great Khan had begun, and Kublai learned that his youngest brother Ariq was raising an army. Kublai hurried back to the capital to find that Ariq had been named Great Khan.

This did not suit him, and he was determined to do something about it. He did, and we'll find out what tomorrow.

The End of Güyük

Güyük Khan was making plans to conquer Europe. He had been part of the invasion of Eastern and Central Europe, and wished to continue. The Mongol Empire had already extended to Russia and Ukraine and Hungary, so Christian Western Europe saw the danger (even though Güyük himself was supposedly Christian).

He started with a warning: a letter to the pope (Innocent IV), who had requested that the Mongol Empire stop expanding westward. Claiming that Catholics had sent envoys during the time of Genghis Khan and Ögedei Khan (Güyük's grandfather and father, respectively) that had been killed, he decided on a non-compromising reply.

"You must say with a sincere heart: 'We will be your subjects; we will give you our strength'. You must in person come with your kings, all together, without exception, to render us service and pay us homage. Only then will we acknowledge your submission. And if you do not follow the order of God, and go against our orders, we will know you as our enemy."

There is no reason to believe that Güyük wouldn't keep his armies moving until he reached the Atlantic.

He had to deal with some internal issues first, however. His mother, Töregene, was one. She had been regent, and had been instrumental in getting her son elected Grand Khan, but despite her retirement to China, he wanted her potential influence neutralized. She had, during her regency, put several of her favorites in positions of authority. One of her favorites was Fatima.

Güyük's brother, Koden, accused Fatima of damaging his health through witchcraft. When Koden died some months later, Güyük insisted that Töregene turn Fatima over to him. Töregene refused. Güyük's men seized Fatima, sewed up all her orifices, and threw her in the river. Töregene died 18 months later of no apparent cause.

In 1248, Güyük summoned Batu Khan to meet him at the capital.  He had once insulted Batu, and the two had their differences, but Batu treated Güyük with the loyalty the Grand Khan deserved. Batu began the journey, but he came with an army. Güyük left the capital and moved westward to meet with Batu, also with an army. Sorghaghtani Beki, Güyük's aunt, sent Batu a warning that he should not trust Güyük.

We'll never know what would have happened, since Güyük died en route. He had been known to be a heavy drinker with poor health. William of Rubruck claimed he was killed in a brawl by Shiban, a younger brother of Batu. The widow, Oghul Qaimish, became regent while Batu and Sorghaghtani arranged to make one of Sorghaghtani's sons, Möngke, the next Grand Khan.

Güyük's death stalled the potential conquest of Europe by the Mongols. Instead, the Mongol Empire looked eastward to continue to make inroads into China. That culminated in another of Sorghaghtani's sons becoming emperor of China. That was Kublai Khan, and we'll talk about him more tomorrow.

Güyük Khan

Genghis Khan had many, many children. There were four sons (Jochi, Chagatai, Ögedei, and Tolui) from whom the future rulers of the Mongol Empire would be drawn. Those four and their sons have been mentioned a lot in the past several blog posts, along with the wives of some.

After Genghis died, the youngest, Tolui, was regent for a short time until the third, Ögedei, was elected as the Grand Khan or Great Khan of the empire. Other sons and grandsons, etc., would be khans in their own right over smaller territories, owing allegiance to the Grand Khan.

Upon Ögedei's death in 1241, one of his wives, Töregene Khatun, was regent until their son Güyük could be officially proclaimed. What was he like?

Born in 1206, he served in the military under his famous grandfather until Genghis' death in 1227, then under his own father. A historian in the Mongol Empire who was a contemporary of Güyük claimed that Güyük was a Christian. A Franciscan friar who traveled into Mongol territory on a papal mission, Giovanni da Pian del Carpine, described him as of "medium stature, very prudent and extremely shrewd, and serious and sedate in his manners."

In 1232, his uncle Tolui died, leaving a widow, Sorghaghtani Beki. It was not unusual for a Mongol widow to re-marry into the family, and Ögedei suggested that Sorghaghtani marry Güyük. She asserted that she needed to stay and raise her four sons.

His coronation did not take place until August 1246, and included 3,000 to 4,000 visitors bearing tributes from all over the empire. In response to Giovanni's letter from Pope Innocent IV, asking that the Mongols cease invading westward, Güyük had a harsh reply. In a letter to the pope, he claimed that Europe must bow down to the Mongol Empire:

"You must say with a sincere heart: 'We will be your subjects; we will give you our strength'. You must in person come with your kings, all together, without exception, to render us service and pay us homage. Only then will we acknowledge your submission. And if you do not follow the order of God, and go against our orders, we will know you as our enemy."

Although Güyük's mother Töregene had been instrumental in promoting his accession, he quickly shut her out of any more administrative work, reversing many of her decisions while she had been regent. He also eliminated many other officials, executing them for treason and replacing them with his favorites. This made him unpopular with the people, although he was a competent military commander and administrator. He managed the dispute over the kings of Georgia.

We will wrap up this summary of his life and administration—and his plans to conquer Europe—tomorrow.

They Wanted a Boy

When Güyük Khan died, Batu Khan started making decisions toward the election of the next Grand Khan. He didn't want the position himself, but he did want to take it away from the Ögedei family (Ögedei was Güyük's father and one of the sons of Genghis Khan). It was customary for Mongol widows to manage their husband's estates, and sometimes even re-marry back into the family. Batu had Güyük's widow become regent over his territories.

Her name was Oghul Qaimish, which means "We were searching for a boy," suggesting that her parents wanted a son rather than a daughter. She came from the Merkit tribe that was conquered by Genghis Khan. Male members of the ruling family were likely killed. She was given as a "secondary bride" to Güyük, a grandson of Genghis.

Güyük's mother, Töregene, was also a Merkit, and might have promoted the marriage because of their shared heritage. Otherwise, Oghul brought no political advantage to Güyük.

She was probably born in the early 1200s, and was therefore in her 40s when she became a widow; her regency lasted from 1248 to 1251.

Batu and Sorghaghtani Beki, widow of Genghis' youngest son, Tolui, were allied in making Oghul regent. This generous move on their part of Batu might have had an ulterior motive outside of following Mongol custom. Oghul had not played any particular role in the management of Güyük's administration previously. With no political experience, her regency was ineffective. She also had difficulty with her two sons who acted as "sub-rulers"; the three made pronouncements that often contradicted each other, creating chaos in their lands. Oghul apparently spent a lot of her time consulting shamans for advice.

Also Sorghaghtani Beki had four sons whom she wished to see advance, and it was her eldest, Möngke, who was put forward by her and Batu as the next Grand Khan. If Oghul thought she could manage to get one of her sons to succeed Güyük, she did not have the political skill it would take to convince the other descendants of Genghis to go along.

When Batu called a kurultai, the council that would decide, many did not attend because he held it outside primary Mongol territory. Oghul sent a representative, Bala, who tried to convince the group that Ögedei's favorite grandson Shiremun should be chosen. This failed, and Möngke was chosen (although there was opposition).

Möngke was officially recognized on 1 July 1251, and Shiremun and Naqu (one of Oghul's sons) mounted a coup. It failed, Oghul was then blamed, arrested, and imprisoned by Sorghaghtani, who had her stripped and tortured before being sentenced to execution for the crime of witchcraft. Execution was done by wrapping her in felt and casting her into the river.

It occurs to me that I don't have a definitive entry in the blog for Güyük himself. Let me tell you about him more directly next time.

The End of Batu Khan

After the death of Güyük Khan, Batu Khan saw an opportunity to take the overlordship away from the Ögedei clan and bring it to his own lineage. He had made great success in expanding the borders of the Mongol Empire westward, after all.

First, he allowed Güyük's wife, Oghul Qaimish, to act as regent while a decision was made, then he called a kurultai, the council of important members of families, to take place in 1250 in territory under his control. Those who should be there, Ögedei's clan and the Chagatai clan (the children of Genghis Khan), refused to leave primary Mongol territory to attend.

Batu did not actually want to be the Grand Khan himself, and rejected it when the kurultai offered it. Instead, he proposed his cousin Möngke, son of Genghis' son Tolui. The Tolui-descended families were in favor, but since not all descendants of Genghis were present, the election was not considered legitimate by many. So Batu sent Möngke, with an escort that included Batu's brothers and son, to meet with the other families. The other families still refused to take part in a kurultai for the purpose of ratifying Möngke.

Möngke was presented to the people at large, who accepted him, and Batu then punished the clans of Ögedei and Chagatai. Buri, a grandson of Chagatai, was outright executed as part of this punishment.

Batu was greatly respected as a kingmaker as well as a loyal subject, allowing Möngke's officers to operate in Batu's territory. Batu and Möngke stayed friendly with each other and, together, saw the Mongol Empire stretch from Afghanistan to Turkey (the illustration is a bust of Batu from Turkey).

Batu did in 1255, leaving his properties to his son Sartaq.

Since recently we have looked at Mongol women and the influence they have, I want to take a look at Oghul Qaimish, Güyük's widow. Since Batu intended to take control of the Empire away from Güyük's family, it is interesting that he put Güyük's widow in charge. Let's take a closer look at this powerful woman tomorrow.

Invading Europe

Batu Khan's military successes inspired Ögedei Khan to have him invade Europe. He had already conquered the Crimean Peninsula.

Spies were sent into Poland, Hungary, and Austria for reconnaissance. Having planned their approach, three separate armies invaded Central Europe: into Hungary, Transylvania, and Poland. The column into Poland defeated Henry II the Pious.

The second and third columns crossed the Carpathians and followed the Danube, combining with the Poland column and defeating the Hungarian army under King Béla IV of Hungary on 11 April 1241. They killed half the Hungarian population, then proceeded to German territory. Béla had sent to Pope Innocent IV for a Crusade against the Mongols, but the pope was focused on the Holy Land. (The illustration is from a 14th century history, the Chronicon Pictum, or "Illustrated Chronicle," and shows Béla fleeing.)

Austria, Dalmatia, and Moravia were occupied. While this was going on, a group led by Ögedei's son Güyük was conquering Transylvania.

Further advances in Germany were paused when the Great Khan died in 1241. Batu's thirst to continue was quenched by a reminder of Mongol law, that the chief descendants of Genghis had to return to Mongolia to elect his replacement.

Batu took his time returning, and the election was delayed for several years until Güyük was elected in 1246. Batu became the viceroy over the western empire. Batu returned to the western front and summoned the Grand prince of Vladimir, Yaroslav II. Batu put him in charge of all other Russian princes.

Around this time Batu came into contact with Europeans and their culture. Giovanni of Plano Carpini was sent by Pope Innocent IV to take a letter to Ögedei, protesting the Mongol invasion. Giovanni met with Batu, who gave him permission to continue to the court of the Great Khan. Giovanni described Batu as "kind enough to his own people, but he is greatly feared by them. He is, however, most cruel in fight; he is very shrewd and extremely crafty in warfare, for he has been waging war for a long time."

William of Rubruck also encountered Batu, describing him physically as about the same height as John de Beaumont (which tells those who never met John de Beaumont nothing useful, but other sources put him at 5'7"), and that his face was covered with red spots.

Others whose paths crossed with Batu are Queen Rusudan, who sent her son David to Batu for recognition. Sorghaghtani Beki sent Batu a warning to beware of a summons from Güyük. Before Batu reached Güyük, Güyük died mysteriously; Rubruck wrote it was one of Batu's brothers who did the deed.

The position of Great Khan was again available. What would Batu do about it? Come back tomorrow to find out.