The Battle of Fulford

The former earl Tostig, brother of King Harold Godwinson of England, wanted revenge for being deposed and exiled for his bad behavior. He finally found an ally with an army in King Harald Hardrada of Norway, to whom Tostig offered the throne of England. The two landed in the north of England in late summer 1066.

Their first target was the territories of the Earls Morcar and Edwin, two men whose local forces had turned back Tostig when he attempted his solo return to England not long before. Harald stopped at the Orkneys to gather allies and supplies, then landed in England and joined up with Tostig, who had some ships and soldiers with him. Their first target was York.

Edwin and Morcar had brought their forces to bear, but they were in a difficult position. The River Ouse was on their right, and on their left was a swampy area called the Fordland. This also left Harald with the high ground.

Estimates are that the Norwegian army numbered about 6000 to the English 5000. There were heavy casualties on both sides.

The English attacked first; Harald's forces had not all arrived, and in fact his weaker battalions were first at the front. The English looked successful at first, but then the stronger and fresher battalions arrived. Although Harald was outnumbered, he was able to push the English back. More and more Norwegian troops were arriving g, adding fresh fighters to the battle against the tiring English. The English were finally defeated, although Edwin and Morcar survived.

York surrendered to the invaders, on the condition that the Norwegians would not force their way into the city.Tostig probably arranged this, since he wished to take over the city himself and would not want it looted. Hostages from York were arranged, and the Norwegian army went seven miles east to Stamford Bridge where they could make camp and rest.

King Harold in the south then decided to pull his armies from the coast and march them north as fast as possible to deal with the threat of his brother Tostig. Within a week of the Battle of Fulford—a remarkably short span of time—he surprised the Norwegians at Stamford Bridge. That story is for next time.

Harald Hardrada and Tostig

While William in Normandy was preparing to take over England after the death of Edward the Confessor and the coronation of Harold Godwinson, King Harald III "Hardrada" of Norway decided to attack England himself. Harald had a dream of re-creating Cnut's North Sea Empire, but Denmark resisted Harald's frequent raids on the Danish coast. He had all but given up this dream when a new player entered the scene: Tostig Godwinson.

That's Tostig in the illustration, brawling with his brother Harold at Edward's court. Their sibling rivalry and violent nature didn't end when they got older. Tostig became the Earl of Northumbria in 1055 at the death of Earl Siward. Northumbria was home to Anglo-Saxons and settlers from Danish invasions. He was not well-liked by either group because of his heavy-handed manner. Also, he was from the south, and the cultures of north and south were very different and led to mistrust. Moreover, King Malcolm III "Canmore" of the Scots to the north was a friend of Tostig, and he was negligent in the face of Scots raids over the border. All these points plus heavy taxation to pay for mercenaries when he needed soldiers (because the locals did not readily volunteer when he made the call) led to a general uprising.

Yorkshire rose up against him and declared him outlaw. Edward was still king, and sent Tostig's brother Harold (by then Edward's right-hand man) to negotiate with the rebels. Harold realized the situation was too untenable for Tostig to remain in power. Harold returned to Edward and advised him to agree to the rebels' demands and depose Tostig. Having Tostig remain the country would not be advisable, so he was exiled.

Tostig and his family and a few loyal retainers went to Baldwin V of Flanders, who gave him some ships and men for support. He then went to Normandy, but William wanted nothing to do with him. After Edward's death in January 1066, Tostig sailed to the Isle of Wight, taking money and provisions and trying to establish a base from which he could get back into the country, but he sailed away when Harold (now king) sent troops down there. Tostig then sailed northward to raise Norfolk and Lincolnshire but was defeated decisively by the earls Morcar and Edwin. His supporters abandoned him, and he went to Scotland to spend the summer with King Malcolm.

At some point he contacted Harald Hardrada, either by message or by sailing to Norway, and invited Harald to take the throne of England. Their first foray in September led to the Battle of Fulford, in which Tostig wanted revenge against Edwin and Morcar. Let's take a look tomorrow at how that went.

William Prepares to Conquer

With the change of reign in England in 1066, Duke William of Normandy saw his opportunity to become king of a country, believing that it was promised to him.

Edward died in early January, and mounting an invasion in winter, specially if one has to cross the English Channel, was not advisable. Besides, invasions take time to assemble, even if you do not have to provision them because you expect to find food once you enter the new country. It was also important to William to gain moral support in the form of a papal blessing.  William of Poitiers claimed that Pope Alexander's consent came along with a papal banner that could be carried by the army; however, Alexander's consent seems to have come after the conquest was complete. William of Poitiers also claimed that the duke had support from Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV (not likely, since Henry was still only 15), and King Sweyn II of Denmark (also unlikely, since Denmark had problems with Norway and Harold of England was an ally of Denmark's in that regard).

William had months to bring together troops from Normandy, France, Brittany, and Flanders. They were all instructed to gather at Saint-Valery-sur-Somme, a seaport on the River Somme estuary. (Joan of Arc was held there before being taken to Rouen to be burned.) The summer months also included a ship-building campaign.

His numbers of men and ships was likely exaggerated by contemporary chroniclers, but for the sake of argument, let's relate that he was said to have 726 ships (including one paid for and outfitted by his wife, Matilda). Those same writers also claim different numbers for soldiers, as high as 150,000; also, as low as 14,000.  Modern estimates reduce those numbers to maybe 7000-8000 men, of whom 1000 or more were cavalry. The others were archers and foot soldiers.

All his pieces were in place by August, but he delayed the crossing. The assumption is that Harold knew William was planning an invasion and hd troops all along the coast. There would be no surprise attack.

Help for William came from an unlikely source: Harald Hardrada, King of Norway. No, Harald was not an ally of William's or offering support. Harald wanted England for himself, so he attacked in the north, drawing King Harold Godwinson's troops away from the south.

For details on how that went, come back tomorrow.

Edward's Death Leads to Turmoil

When Edward the Confessor died on 5 January 1066, he supposedly made a deathbed statement committing his kingdom into the care of Harold Godwinson, his wife's brother. As the most powerful man in England after the king, he was a natural choice. Whether Edward actually made that statement or not, the witenagemot, the group of wise men who counseled the king, approved Harold as king. He was crowned on the same day Edward was buried. (Some say he crowned himself, as in the illustration.)

When word reached Duke William of Normandy across the English Channel, the response was understandably extreme: William claimed that Edward had named him his heir years earlier. If that happened, perhaps William visited Edward when Edward had exiled the Godwins (and would not have considered a Godwin as his heir), but if so it might not have been that serious an offer. Edward and William were first cousins—William's grandfather was Richard II of Normandy, brother of Emma of Normandy, Edward's mother—and so there was an argument for William being in the line of succession.

Supposedly Harold himself had sworn on a saint's relics two years earlier to recognize William as king of England after Edward, after William saved Harold from capture by Guy of Ponthieu.

William was incensed. The report that Harold had broken a vow made on holy relics was so significant that it enabled William to procure the pope's blessing to depose Harold and take the throne. (Of course, William might have had help: Pope Alexander II was a former student of Lanfranc, who had been first an enemy and then a supporter of William and was not above exercising his influence on his former pupils.) The fact that William's army marched under a papal banner and blessing would have had a demoralizing effect on Harold's forces.

Worse than the psychological effect, however, would have been physical exhaustion. The stories we hear in our grade-school history books about 1066 leave out a third party: Harald Hardrada.

Harald Hardrada, King of Denmark and Norway, also believed he had a claim to England, since Danes had ruled it in times past. Harald landed in the north of England in September of 1066 with 300 longships, 15,000 men, and King Harold's brother, Tostig. On September 20 he defeated the first English forces he encountered. King Harold, however, met Harald five days later at the Battle of Stamford Bridge. Once Harold's forces managed to cross the bridge, he killed Harald and Tostig and defeated the army so soundly that only 24 ships survived to flee back to Denmark. This was not an easy battle, however, and the standoff at Stamford Bridge alone supposedly cost Harold about 20 of his best warriors and closest companions. See more here and here.

...and while Harold's army was recovering from their hard-won battle, the message arrived that William's fleet had arrived at Hastings, 300 miles away. The army (not recovered from their battle) had to march quickly south and meet William's fresh forces who had had plenty of time to prepare their defenses and pick the battle site. Who knows what would have happened if Harold's forces had been able to meet William's while at full strength? The years following the Battle of Hastings in 1066 are well-known, but history books too often leave out the crucial three weeks prior to the battle, when Harold and his English army performed herculean tasks to defend their shores.

If Edward died 5 January and Hastings took place in October, what was William doing for ten months? I'll tell you next time.

A Question of Rule in England

In 1051, when King Edward the Confessor was inviting more friendly Normans to join him in England, Duke William of Normandy visited. According to records made after 1066 but before William's death in 1087, William reported that Edward (who was celibate and would have no heirs of his own) told William that William would be his heir to the throne of England.

In 1064 (two years before Edward the Confessor's death), Harold Godwinson (later King Harold; the most powerful lord in England after the king; his sister was married to Edward) was shipwrecked off the coast of Normandy and held captive by Count Guy of Ponthieu. (Note: This is about the only reason why anyone studying history cares about Guy of Ponthieu, but this incident was important enough to justify William's invasion that Guy makes it onto the Bayeux tapestry; that's Guy in the illustration.) Duke William of Normandy told Guy to release him; this was done, and Harold was returned to England, but only after swearing on holy relics that he would recognize William as his king in the future.

This is according to reports written long after the fact by William's chroniclers. No English source relates this arrangement, and the two Norman sources are probably relating it solely to justify what happened in 1066.

When Edward died in 1066, Harold claimed that Edward had made a deathbed pronouncement, naming Harold his heir.

There was also a third claimant to the throne, although the least convincing. King Harald Hardrada of Norway and Denmark believed that he was the proper heir, because Danes had conquered England so many times in the past. A tenuous claim, but strengthened by the fact that he was supported by Tostig, the brother of Harold Godwinson! (Ahh, the days when sibling rivalry had higher stakes!)

The problem with all these claims?

In primarily Anglo-Saxon England, the next king was chosen by the witenagemot, the meeting of wise men. Kings might name a successor, but the witanagemot was needed to approve a ruler.

So who pressed their claim?

All of them.

William's reaction and the events that followed were predictable, but I'll tell you about them anyway tomorrow.

William and Matilda

William wanted to marry the daughter of Baldwin V of Flanders, Matilda, in 1049, but Pope Leo IX did not approve. William was illegitimate (his mother was his father's mistress), and the two were cousins close enough to offend the concerns of consanguinity.

Flanders was a very powerful French territory, so the marriage would actually do more for William's status than Matilda's. According to some stories, Matilda saw this and said she would never marry someone of such lower status, whereupon William road to Bruges, and either 1) forced his way into her bedroom and beat her, or 2) met her on the road, dragged her from her horse by her hair, and "courting her" in the mud. Here father was outraged, but was stayed from getting revenge by Matilda saying she would marry William or no one.

What kind of man was he? The only surviving piece of him is a femur, from which the height of 5'10" can be deduced. This would make him tall for his time. He was considered a great fighter and very strong, able to draw bowstrings that others could not. A contemporary, Geoffrey Martel, Count of Anjou, says he was without equal as a fighter and horseman. Although considered greedy and cruel by contemporaries, he was also praised for his piety.

William turned to the abbot of Bec, Lanfranc, for help with the pope. Lanfranc also opposed the marriage, so William exiled him from Normandy, but at the last minute forgive him if Lanfranc would take on the task of convincing the pope to relent. A pope finally approved the marriage some time in the 1050s, but it was probably post-ceremony: William and Matilda had gone ahead and married without papal approval, it is assumed. One of the persuasions that supposedly worked to get the pope on their side was the founding of two monasteries, one by the groom and one by the bride.

The union produced four sons and several daughters. There is no inkling that William had mistresses on the side. As a mother, she made sure all her children were well-educated.

He trusted Matilda to rule when he was absent, and she was involved in many of the affairs of state. The illustration shows both of their signatures on the Accord of Winchester, which established the primacy of the Archbishop of Canterbury over the Archbishop of York. (It did not go over well with everyone.) After he went to England (and she bought a ship with her own money to contribute to the invasion), she stayed in Normandy until 1068, waiting to be crowned Queen of England until it could take place at Pentecost (11 May 1068). Phrases were added to the ceremony elevating queenship to be equal to kingship in terms of divine authority.

In the summer of 1083 she fell ill, and died on 2 November. William swore to give up hunting (his favorite pastime) as an expression of grief. She was buried under the floor at l'Abbaye aux Dames in Caen. When her skeleton was examined in 1959, it was determined that she was 5' in height, a typical stature for the day.

And now we turn to an earlier moment, when a member on England's royalty visited William and, perhaps, made him a promise.

William's Family

Despite his youth when succeeding his father, despite the turmoil in Normandy, William worked hard to rule Normandy properly and make it a unified duchy. His Truce of God was one smart policy, limiting the opportunities for warfare in the context of religion.

Some of his support in political matters came from family members. His mother's brother, Walter, was one of William's protectors during his minority. His half-sister, Adelaide (by a different mistress of Robert's), was married to Enguerrand II, Count of Ponthieu, giving William a powerful ally in upper Normandy (for a time: there were questions of legitimacy of the marriage that became too complex a story for right now). Of course his great-uncle Robert, Archbishop of Rouen, was a powerful support, though only for a couple years until his death.

After his father's death, his mother Herleva married Herluin de Conteville; he was a minor landowner on the banks of the Seine, and the title probably came to him from William after marrying Herleva. They had two sons, Odo and Robert. Odo became Bishop of Bayeux (and was involved in various matters here and here and here) and was one of William's most loyal and relied-upon supporters as well as one of the individuals specifically portrayed on the Bayeux Tapestry (he probably commissioned it). William's other half-brother, Robert of Mortain, was also one of the few individuals known to fight at the Battle of Hastings. In the Domesday Book, he is listed as one of the greatest landholders with 797 manors in his name. All this despite William of Malmesbury's description of him as a man crassi et hebetis ingenii ("of stupid & dull disposition"). (The illustration above shows William on the Bayeux Tapestry, flanked by Odo gesturing and Robert with a sword.)

William had some second cousins, descended from Gunnor, his great-grandfather's mistress/second wife. The three—William fitzOsbern, Roger de Beaumont, and Roger of Montgomery—became such powerful landowners in England and advisors to William that the speculation by Orderic Vitalis that William in his perilous minority was "hidden" among peasants to keep him safe from enemies may have arisen from his absence from court because he was with these distant cousins for safety. He certainly felt close to them and rewarded them greatly once he took over England.

Of course, the most important relative in one's life is one's spouse. William found his spouse in Matilda of Flanders, daughter of Baldwin V with whom William's father had a bit of a clash. Clearly that conflict was over with, but there were more issues with the union, issues that did not prevent the marriage. Let's look at William and Matilda tomorrow.

William the Bastard

When Robert I of Normandy died in 1035, while returning from a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, the rule of Normandy passed to his seven- or eight-year-old son, William. William had a rocky start to his reign, and not just because he was young. William's mother was Herleva of Falaise, Robert's mistress. William's illegitimacy was a problem for some, and his mother's supposed humble origins also raised eyebrows.

He had the support of his great-uncle, the Archbishop of Rouen, Robert. Also, King Henry I of France, to whom Normandy owed fealty, supported William. Against him were his cousin Guy of Burgundy (son of his father's sister Alice), and two other uncles, Mauger and William of Talou, whose father was Richard II but whose mother was Richard II's second wife, a different wife from whom William was descended.

William's uncle Archbishop Robert died in 1037, and Mauger (who was only 18) was named Archbishop of Rouen. He was not supportive of William. This change removed one of William's strongest supporters, and political turmoil followed, culminating in Mauger's brother William of Talou forming a rebellion in 1053; this failed, and the rebel uncle fled to Boulogne. Because they were brothers, suspicion fell on Mauger, who was deposed as archbishop and exiled to the Isle of Guernsey. A Norman poet, Wace (1100-1174) collected stories of Mauger's life many years later, claiming that Mauger had made a pact with the devil, had gone mad, and drowned.

Earlier problems arose when another guardian of William, Alan of Brittany (son of Richard II's sister Hawise) died in 1040. His replacement as guardian of the young duke was Gilbert of Brionne, who was killed by enemies within months along with another guardian, Turchetil. Another guardian, Osbern, was killed in the early 1040s. These stories come to us from Orderic Vitalis, who wrote that Herleva's brother Walter would hide the young duke in peasant's huts. What is true is that three of William's more distant cousins became some of the most powerful magnates in England after 1066 (including the first Earl of Shrewsbury and the first Earl of Hereford), so it is possible that Orderic's report is born from William being kept far away from the traditional ducal seat and sheltered with the cousins.

King Henry of France sheltered William when he had to escape the attempt by his cousin Guy of Burgundy and others to capture him in 1046. In 1047 Henry with William fought the Battle of Val-ès-Dunes (see illustration for a monument marking the spot) that more decisively put William in power, although there were still battles to be fought and won. It was at this time that William declared the Truce of God in Normandy, in an attempt to limit opportunities for battle. Conflicts in Normandy existed almost constantly until about 1060.

There is so much more to William's career than the events of 1066 and following. Tomorrow we'll look deeper into the man and his attempts to unify Normandy.

Robert I of Normandy

Robert I of Normandy's father, Richard II, had made an alliance with England by marrying his sister Emma to King Æthelred. When Cnut attacked England, killing Æthelred, his and Emma's sons Edward and Alfred Ætheling took refuge in Normandy.

The Gesta Normannorum Ducum ("Deeds of the Norman Dukes") by William of Jumièges tells us that Robert put together a fleet to attack England, but the winds were against him, causing much of his fleet to go off course or sink. Robert himself landed in Guernsey. Cnut sent ambassadors to him, offering half the kingdom to Edward and Alfred. Weighing this option—war for all of England versus half of England and peace—Robert decided to postpone his decision until after a pilgrimage.

Robert had been at odds with the Church ever since he first came to power and exiled his uncle, the Archbishop of Rouen, for siding with Robert's brother during Robert's attempted coup. His attitude had changed over the years, however, and he restored the properties he had taken from Fécamp Abbey.

A pilgrimage to Jerusalem was not an easy journey, and for a ruler to do so meant making sure everything at home was secure. Robert had nor formally married, but he had a mistress, Herleva of Falaise, by whom he had a son, William. An anonymous chronicler of Tours claims Robert and Herleva were joined in marriage some time after the birth of their son, but that did not mean that William's sobriquet of "the Bastard" went away. Orderic Vitalis, later contributing to the Gesta mentioned above, wrote that William was born about 1026/7.

Lacking any other heir, Robert named William his successor and left for Jerusalem by way of Constantinople. On his return journey, he fell ill and died at Nicaea on 2 July 1035. William the Bastard was eight years old. William of Malmesbury claimed Robert was poisoned, but that was the usual suspicion any time a young man (especially a ruler) died suddenly. There was no reason to believe anyone on the pilgrimage wanted Robert poisoned.

William the Bastard became Duke William II of Normandy, and about 30 years after succeeding his father in Normandy, he would change England, Western Europe, and the English language. First, however, he had to survive a decade of challenges to his legitimacy. I'll talk about that tomorrow.

The Lucky Usurper

How lucky is it that the duke whose duchy you want to appropriate defeats you, allows you to live if you pledge loyalty to him, then dies almost immediately miles away from you when no one can blame you? And you were raised in the ruler's household, so you know how things work? It all happened to one lucky younger brother.

Robert the Fearless tried to take over the Duchy of Normandy when his father, Richard II, died in 1026. Unfortunately, it went to his older brother, Richard III. Fortunately, Richard was the forgiving type, so he forgave the rebellion and then promptly died so that Robert got what he wanted anyway. Richard had it for 49 weeks. Robert got to hold the position for eight years.

Robert was now in charge, but his rebellion had lasting effects. The two brothers' factions still squabbled over whether Robert was considered a legitimate ruler. Robert's uncle, Archbishop Robert of Rouen and Count of Evreux, had supported Richard during the rebellion. Duke Robert decided to assemble an army against his uncle, forcing him to leave Normandy. He also attacked his cousin, the Bishop of Bayeux Hugo III d'Ivry, banishing him from Normandy. Robert also fell afoul of the Church further when he seized some church properties belonging to Fécamp Abbey, which was long connected to his family.

Apparently not being satisfied unless he was causing or involved in conflict, he promised military support to Count Baldwin IV of Flanders. This had a more noble reason: Robert's sister Eleanor was married to Baldwin IV. This Baldwin was driven from Flanders by his son, Baldwin V. Robert I's involvement made King Robert II of France persuade Baldwin V to make peace with his father in 1030.

When Robert II of France died in 1031, his (third) wife, Queen Constance, wanted her son Robert of Burgundy to succeed to the throne. King Robert had intended his elder son Henry to succeed him. Robert of Normandy got involved by sheltering Henry (unironically favoring the older brother and designated heir, as opposed to his own case). When Henry assumed the throne of France as Henry I, he rewarded Robert with the Vexin, an area between Rouen and Paris. (Incidentally, Robert's great-great-grandfather Rollo made several attempts to conquer that territory.)

Beyond the continent, he had interactions with England that are worth talking about...next time.

Succession Problems

Richard II of Normandy had several children, and used them as instruments of policy to make alliances by marrying them to important people. His wife was Judith, daughter of Count Conan I of Brittany. Richard II's sister Hawise had married Judith's brother Geoffrey, who became Duke of Brittanny. This "double marriage" tie linked Normandy and Brittany very firmly.

Richard's eldest child, Richard, would succeed his father.

Alice, born c.1003, lived until she was 35 and bore a few children to Count Reginald I of Brittany (another Brittany link).

Robert was born 22 June c.1005-7. Known also as Robert the magnificent, he would have his own chance to be duke.

William entered Fécamp Abbey and died young.

Eleanor was married to Count Baldwin IV of Flanders. Their granddaughter Matilda would marry William the Conqueror.

Matilda became a nun at Fécamp.

After Judith's death in 1017, Richard II took a second wife, Poppa of Envermeu. Their children were Mauger, who became archbishop of the Rouen, the seat of the Normandy administration, and William, count of Arques in northwestern France.

When the eldest son became Richard III of Normandy in 1026, his brother Robert attempted a coup. Robert was not happy with only having a province to rule (Hiemois, now called Exmes) that his father had given him shortly before dying. Robert's rebellion was unsuccessful. Richard captured him, but released him on condition of an oath of loyalty. The thing done, Richard dismissed he army, returned to Rouen, and died. An extraordinarily convenient death, so of course there was talk of poison.

Richard had been married to Adela, a daughter of the king of France, but they were childless. He did have children by an unknown woman or women. A son became a monk at Fécamp, a daughter, Alice, married the viscount of Bayeux. They were not suitable for the royal succession.

Whatever the case, in less than a year since he took the throne (about 49 weeks), it passed to none other than Robert, about whom we will have things to say next time, including a mention of his well-known son.

Richard the Good?

Richard II, Duke of Normandy, was the eldest surviving son of Richard I and Gunnor. We don't know his birth date, but when his father died in 996, Richard was young: the first five years of his reign his uncle Rodulf of Ivry was regent along with Gunnor. (Richard's grandmother, Sprota, married after the death of his grandfather, William Longsword; Rodulf was the son of Sprota and her second husband, Esperleng.)

In the early 11th century, Vikings started plundering England and then crossing the English Channel to sell their goods on the continent. Richard welcomed them, which angered England. Richard's father had signed a treaty with King Æthelred II (the Unready) that Normandy would not aid the enemies of England. Æthelred led an attack on the Cotentin Peninsula that Richard was forced to repel. Æthelred tried to have Richard captured and brought to England, but the Normans successfully prevented this.

Richard tried to make it up to Æthelred by offering his sister, Emma, as a bride. It was a great idea at the time, but down the road the arrangement would lead to a justification for William of Normandy in 1066 to...well, you know that story already.

Later, when Sweyn Forkbeard (father of Cnut) intended to attack England, Richard made him welcome in Rouen and made an alliance with him. The attack forced Emma and her husband to flee to Normandy, where Richard also sheltered them.

Wanting to amend his reputation and that of Normandy, Richard commissioned his confessor, Dudo of Saint-Quentin, to write a history of Normandy, rehabilitating his ancestors and making them seem more noble and Christian than they were in their time.

After reigning for three decades, Richard died, leaving the title to his son, Richard III, who signed 49 weeks and died childless. I'll tell you about him next time.

Richard I of Normandy

Richard I of Normandy's had several children with his second wife, Gunnor, and used them to great political advantage. By making several good marriages, he allied himself with powerful people and countries.

Gunnor herself gave him a strong connection to a rival Viking group on the Cotentin peninsula. His eldest daughter Emma was married first to King Æthelred the Unready of England, and then after his defeat (by Cnut) to Cnut the Great.

He spent the last three decades of his reign avoiding getting involved in the political squabbles of the Franks and others, focusing on Normandy, despite his closeness to Hugh Capet, son of Richard's father-in-law (father of his first wife, Emma), who became King of the Franks.

Richard also made certain the Church had no argument with him by supporting monasteries in Normandy and restoring lands to churches. He rebuilt the Benedictine Abbey of the Holy Trinity at Fécamp (centuries later the birthplace of the liquor bénédictine) which had been destroyed by Vikings in 841.

Richard had been born at Fécamp, and died there on 20 November 996. He was buried there—of that we are certain. The location of his tomb has escaped discovery. Possibilities have been disinterred and opened and carbon-dated, and none have been found yet that could have been Richard's.

His eldest son Richard II succeeded him. He was called Richard the Good, but his actions created tensions with former allies, as I'll explain tomorrow.

Richard and Gunnor

Richard I of Normandy was struggling to continue the dynasty begun by his father William and grandfather Rollo. His first wife, Emma of Paris, died childless, so he had to find another bride. He found her in Gunnor, (possibly) his long-time mistress.

Gunnor's origin cannot be confirmed. Robert de Torigni wrote that he father was a forester; Dudo of Saint-Quentin claimed she was of noble Danish ancestry and wealthy (about 1015 she made a grant to Mont St.-Michel, portrayed in the illustration). Her name is found on charters into the 1020s, often acting as regent for her husband.

Robert tells a story how they met. Richard I was hunting and heard of a forester's beautiful daughter nearby. The daughter was Seinfreda and already married. Richard ordered her to come to him so they could sleep together, but Seinfreda sent her unmarried sister, Gunnor. Richard appreciated that he had been prevented from committing adultery and readily married Gunnor. Originally they were married more Danico ("by Danish custom"), which essentially meant cohabiting.

In truth, Dudo's information about her being from a wealthy and powerful family is more accurate. Her sisters made political marriages on both sides of the English Channel.

They had several children, three sons and three daughters, who all obtained good positions and/or marriages. The eldest was Richard II, who succeeded his father as ruler of Normandy. The second son, Robert, was to be appointed archbishop of Rouen, but his parents' non-Christian union meant the pope would not sanction it. Richard and Gunnor then had a Christian marriage ceremony, and Robert became archbishop as well as Count of Evreux. He never lost his taste for politics, and was prominent in later events. The third son, Mauger, was married in 1012 to Germain, the daughter of the Count of Corbeil, and became Count of Corbeil himself in time. (Two other sons died very young.)

Their three daughters had advantageous marriages. The eldest, Emma, was married to more than one king of England. Hawise married Geoffrey I, Duke of Brittany, becoming a duchess. Their last daughter, Maud, married the Count of Blois, Odo II. Sadly, she died young and childless. Odo quarreled with Maud's father over the dowry, which brought the king of the Franks, Robert II, into the picture. Robert was Odo's father-in-law, and ruled on Odo's behalf, giving him the land involved.

Gunnor survived her husband. I'll return to his life, and its end, tomorrow.

Richard I of Normandy

William Longsword, Count of Rouen and chieftain of Normandy, had one son, Richard, with his Breton concubine Sprota. William was assassinated in 942, after which Sprota married a wealthy landowner named Esperleng. Sprota and  Esperleng also had a son, who became the Norman nobleman Rodulf of Ivry and one of Richard's strongest supporters.

When William died, Richard was only 10 years old. William's ally, King Louis IV of West Francia, installed Richard as his father's successor to Normandy. William's enemy, Count Arnolf I of Flanders, convinced Louis to take the boy with him into Frankish territory and take back Normandy. Lower Normandy was given to Hugh the Great, a powerful duke and Count of Paris.

Supporters Bernard the Dane (a counselor to William) and Osmond de Centville, Count of Vernon, and others gathered a mob of knights and peasants and marched to Louis' palace to demand the freeing of Richard. Louis claimed he only kept Richard near him to teach him, and turned Richard over to the crowd.

Still landless, but recognized by the Normans as their rightful heir to the duchy, at the age of 14 he had support from Norman and Viking leaders in France and Harald "Bluetooth" to fight a war against Louis for the return of Normandy. Louis was captured and forced to recognize Richard as the leader of a restored Normandy. Richard and Hugh made an alliance, and Hugh promised his daughter Emma of Paris to Richard as a wife, although she was a child at the time. The marriage date was put off until 960.

Louis and Arnulf were not about to give up. They convinced Holy Roman Emperor Otto I to join them in an attack on Richard and Hugh. This was a mistake: they were defeated decisively in 947. Several years of peace followed. Louis died in 954 and his 13-year-old son was not about to start a war. Richard married Hugh's daughter, but they had no children (a trend for Norman ruler first marriages, it seems, if you've been reading the past few posts). Emma died on 19 March 968.

Hugh had offered his son, Hugh Capet, to Richard to raise. In 987, Hugh Capet became king of the Franks after the death of Louis' son Lothair. Richard now had no worries about a war with the rest of France. Richard also made alliances by marrying off his children strategically. To get these children, however, he had to remarry, and that's a story for tomorrow.