Charles the Bald

Charlemagne's son and successor as emperor, Louis the Pious, had several children. Several of them were with his first wife, Ermengarde of Hesbaye. After her death in 818, Louis married Judith of Bavaria and had one son, Charles, born 13 June 823. Charles was much younger than his brothers, who all had been granted sub-kingdoms of their own by the time of his birth. The presence of another son and possible successor to Louis raised concerns among the older children.

Louis tried to give Charles his own sub-kingdom, but Louis' older sons rebelled against these attempts. You can read more about that here. In 837, Louis called his nobles together in Aachen and asked them to recognize Charles as heir to the entirety of Gaul. When Louis died in 840, Charles' allied himself with his older brother Louis the German to defeat their other brother, Lothair I. The Treaty of Verdun in 843 gave Charles all of the kingdom of the West Franks, an area which essentially encompasses modern day France. Louis the German held the eastern area that corresponds to Germany. Lothair kept the title King of Italy.

Life was relatively peaceful after Verdun. The brothers would meet every few years to discuss matters of mutual concern. In 858, however, Louis was persuaded by his nobles to try to take land from Charles. Charles was not very well-liked by his people, who did not respond to his call to raise an army, so he fled to Burgundy. Louis the German's bid failed, because the bishops refused to crown him king of the West Franks.

He eventually became emperor when Lothair's son died, and traveled to Rome where Pope John VIII. When John asked him for help against the Saracens in Italy, he crossed the Alps to help, but the nobles of Lombardy were not interested in supporting him. Charles, feeling ill, started back home, but died on 6 October 877, in the mountains. The body had to be brought home for proper burial, but carrying a body across the Alps was not easy or swift. The stench from the decaying corpse prompted them to bury him as soon as possible, at an abbey in Burgundy. A few years later the body as disinterred and taken for burial to the Abbey of Saint-Denis

Regarding his nickname: A Genealogy of Frankish Kings that was started during his reign lists him as Karolus Calvus, "Charles the Bald." There are no contemporary records that suggest he had little or no hair. Some scholars suggest that it was an ironic nickname because he was very hairy. Others point out that "bald" could simply be a reference to his lack of land at first. The illustration above is of Charles in the Vivian Bible, made in 845, and shows him with plenty of hair.

The Middle Ages cared about hair and its upkeep, and baldness was not seen as desirable. There were cures for baldness. If you're interested in them, come back tomorrow.

Pope John VIII

John VIII was a Roman who, as a young man, witnessed the 846 CE raid against Rome by Muslims. According to the Liber Pontificalis ("Book of the Popes"), the raiders were Saracens from Africa, although other records offer other origins. These would have been Aghlabids from Ifriqiya, who started with the conquest of Sicily a couple decades earlier. They plundered the suburbs of Rome but were prevented from entering the city thanks to the walls, which were damaged but not breached.

When he became pope on 14 December 872 (after the death of Adrian II), John commenced to push back on the presence of Muslims in and around Italy. He considered the Muslim successes the result of bad Christians. He requested aid from Charles the Bald and others, but aid was not forthcoming, not even from local Christian leaders.

The incoming Muslims had, in some cases, settled in and made arrangements with local Christians to live peaceably near each other. He decided to declare a ban on forming alliances, but no one was buying it. This was seen simply as a ploy to increase the reach and power of the Papal States.

In 876 he himself traveled to the cities of Salerno, Capua, Naples, Gaeta, and Amalfi to form an alliance against the Saracens. He reinforced the walls of the city. The 846 raid had plundered the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls (which was its name, not just a description of its location). He fortified the basilica, the connected monastery, and even the nearby houses. He also formed a papal fleet.

John's predecessor, Adrian, had condemned Photios I, the patriarch of Constantinople. John reinstated him, hoping to appease the Byzantines and gain their support.

Unfortunately for John, his attempts to strengthen Rome drained the papal treasury. This is assumed to be the reason that, almost exactly one decade after the start of his pontificate, he was poisoned and then clubbed to death by his own clergy, on 16 December 882.

"Taking out the boss" was not the usual way to end the pontificate of a pope, but it was effectively employed more than once in the history of the Liber Pontificalis, especially in the 10th century starting with John. There were another half-dozen "eliminations" that are certain, and then maybe a further half-dozen papal deaths that were, let's say, a little bit suspicious.

But as tempting a topic that is, I've realized that Charles the Bald keeps getting mentioned, going back 12 years, and hasn't really been given his own entry, despite being the descendant and ancestor of those who have been highlighted. Time to put Charles in the spotlight and find out if he really was bald, or if that was a reference to some other characteristic. See you tomorrow.

"Pope Joan"

Jean de Mailly was a Dominican chronicler working in Metz in northeast France in the middle of the 13th century. He wrote a history of the Diocese of Metz, in which he mentions a female pope reigning for two years about the year 1100. She was a talented woman who dressed as a man and became a notary to the pontifical Curia, then a cardinal, and finally a pope.

One day, while riding her horse, she gave birth to a son, revealing the deception. (Honestly, if she were pope for two years and at the end of that time had a son, then at least one person in her orbit knew that she was actually a woman.) With the deception revealed, she got tied to the tail of the horse, dragged around the city, then stoned to death and buried on the spot with the inscription placed over her Petre pater patrum papissae prodito partum ("Peter, Father of Fathers, betray the childbearing of the woman Pope").

This idea tickled the imagination of others, and so it became repeated and expanded. Along came Martin of Troppau, a Polish Dominican, who also wrote history. His history of the world first appeared during the pontificate of Clement IV (1265-68), but it wasn't until the third edition in 1277 that he added the story of the female pope.

Martin places the event in the 9th century, just after the death of Pope Leo IV (847-55). She was an "Englishman" named John of Mainz. Originally taken to Athens as a young girl in male clothing, she became educated until no one was her intellectual equal. She went to Rome (still disguised as a man), and earned so much respect that she was eventually made pope. During a procession from St. Peter's to the Lateran, she gave birth to a child. She died (and was buried) on the spot. Martin refers to her as Johanna. Martin himself was a papal chaplain at the Vatican, so his accounts were widely read, and the legend spread. In a later version of his history he changed the story, saying that she was deposed, imprisoned, and then lived for many years doing penance. The child grew up to become bishop of Ostia, who had her body interred at Ostia.

Later writers give her the birth name of Agnes; others said she was Gilberta. One version of the story says she was given a vision and offered eternal punishment or temporal disgrace. She chose the latter, and that is why she died on the spot after giving birth.

By the 15th century, scholars were looking at these stories and noting their improbability. Unfortunately, the 20th century enjoys escapism and conspiracy theories, and the legend of "Pope Joan" has been embellished to the point where entire books have been written to recount her "history." There is no gap in the history of popes where Joan was excised (although I wrote here, coincidentally, that one annal thought there was a gap before Leo IV, not after.) A 10th-century pope, John XII (955-64), supposedly had a concubine named Joan who was given much authority at the papal palace during his pontificate, and some have speculated that this gave rise to the idea of a "Pope Joan."

But let's say she did become pope; what was she called? She would not have taken the name "Pope Joan"! A Dominican named Bartolomeo Platina (1421-81) called her Pope John VIII. This is silly, since he should have known that there was a Pope John VIII in the 9th century, and not an inconsequential one, either. Let's talk about him next time.

Pope John XII

After the story of Gregorius by Hartmann von Aue, I became curious if there ever was a pope who was the product of incest. The only pope I could find with any connection to incest was John XII, who was called Octavian at birth and probably should never have become pope.

His father was Alberic II of Spoleto (912 - 954). Alberic styled himself Prince of Rome, and for all intents and purposes, he controlled Rome politically after a quarrel with the actual King of Rome, Hugh, when Alberic incited a mob that drove Hugh out of the city. Alberic married his step-sister Alda, which would (sort of) make their son the product of incest. But their son was Gregory I of Tusculum. Octavian's mother was actually Alberic's concubine. On Alberic's deathbed, he had the nobles and clergy of Rome swear to make Octavian the next pope (Gregory was a count, and didn't need anything else).

This idea was not completely out of the blue. Octavian had entered holy orders and was a cardinal deacon of a basilica in Rome. Pope Agapetus II died in November 955, and the 25-year-old Octavian was elected his successor one month later, taking the name John XII.

A note about the name: for centuries, popes used their own names when elected; they rarely took a new name when they became pope. When Octavian chose to call himself "John" it was only the third time that a pope took a new name. This is called a "regnal name"; that is, the name used when one starts a reign or pontificate. The only other times prior to this when a pope used a different name were John II (born Mercurius, reigned 533-535) and John III (born Catelinus, reigned 561-574). Octavian would use 'Octavian" when issuing directives on secular matters, and "John XII" when issuing papal bulls.

There were plenty of secular issues. In 960 he personally led an attack on some Lombard duchies to reclaim part of the Papal States. He did not achieve that goal, and in fact had to agree to relinquish a claim on certain territories. He was equally ineffective in controlling Rome the way his father had. When King Berengar II of Italy began to attack papal territory, John appealed to Otto I "the Great" of Germany. For his help, John crowned Otto Holy Roman Emperor.

At home, John was considered coarse and immoral; the Lateran Palace was described as a brothel. At a Synod of Rome in 963, charges of corruption were brought against him. The contemporary priest and historian Liudprand of Cremona offers us this (hearsay) account:

Then, rising up, the cardinal priest Peter testified that he himself had seen John XII celebrate Mass without taking communion. John, bishop of Narni, and John, a cardinal deacon, professed that they themselves saw that a deacon had been ordained in a horse stable, but were unsure of the time. Benedict, cardinal deacon, with other co-deacons and priests, said they knew that he had been paid for ordaining bishops, specifically that he had ordained a ten-year-old bishop in the city of Todi ... They testified about his adultery, which they did not see with their own eyes, but nonetheless knew with certainty: he had fornicated with the widow of Rainier, with Stephana his father's concubine, with the widow Anna, and with his own niece, and he made the sacred palace into a whorehouse.

I have italicized the relevant phrase. (I promised an incestuous pope, after all.)

It was his deal with Otto that ultimately caused him trouble. Otto wanted John to abandon his worldly ways. As Otto did what John wanted—subduing Berengar—John feared Otto's hold in Italy and sent for help from the Magyars and the Byzantines. Seeing John turn on him, Otto besieged Rome. John fled Rome, taking papal treasure with him. A council summoned in Rome by Otto deposed John and elected Pope Leo VIII in his place.

After Otto left Rome, John re-entered (Leo fled) and summoned his own synod to declare his deposition invalid. Before he could negotiate with Otto, he died on 14 May 964. The cause of his death is uncertain. All accounts say it involved an adulterous encounter, but some say he died of apoplexy and some say he was caught and killed by the husband.

His very worldly behavior may explain a papal legend that won't go away. A medieval writer claims that among John's concubines was one named Joan who wielded great authority during John's pontificate. It has been suggested that this gave rise to the legend of "Pope Joan," that supposedly there was a pope who was secretly a woman—a claim for which no evidence exists. But I suppose that legend is worth examining next time.

The Good Sinner

The German knight-poet Hartmann von Aue wrote epic poetry, some of which was about the Arthurian Cycle. He also wrote an early "rags to riches" story called Gregorius, which was popular enough that five intact manuscripts remain, as well as six fragments.

The death of a wealthy duke leaves his very young son and daughter orphaned and destitute. The two have an incestuous union that produces a child, Gregorius, who is born when his parents are still only about eleven years old. A wise old man sends the father to Jerusalem on pilgrimage to repent of his sins. The father dies along the way. The same man tells the mother to put the child in a box and put the box out to sea so God can take care of him. The child is placed in a box with 20 pieces of gold and a tablet explaining his birth.

The box is found by two fishermen who are working on behalf of an abbey. The present the box to the abbot, who tells one of the fisherman to raise the boy as his own. When Gregorius is six, he begins his education under the abbot. He grows into a smart and handsome young man, which makes clear to those around him that he could not be the son of a mere fisherman. Realizing his family is not his own, he talks to the abbot, who gives him the tablet that explains his origin. In order to repent of his parents' sin, he becomes a knight to perform chivalric deeds.

Coming upon a besieged city, he frees it and wins the hand of its mistress. They marry, and he settles down in the city. A maid notices that, there is a room which the knight frequents, after which he always emerges with eyes red from crying. She leads Gregorius' wife there, and they find the tablet that explains his origin. The wife recognizes the tablet, because (in an Oedipal twist), she is the mother who bore him! She realizes that she is his mother and wife and aunt. When he discovers the truth, Gregorius tells his wife-mother to give away all her goods and live a life of poverty as penance. Gregorius has himself chained to a rock in the middle of a lake, and has the keys to his chains thrown into the water by a fisherman. The fisherman says that, if the key is ever found, it will be proof that Gregorius is a holy man whose penance has been accepted by god.

Well! Seventeen years later, two priests have a vision from God that the next pope will be found on a rock in Aquitania, repenting of his sins. The two set off to look for this man, and come upon the fisherman who chained him and threw the key. The fisherman should have simply offered them a meal, but instead he sells them a fish. When the fisherman cuts the fish open to clean it, he finds a key inside. He is horrified that he has chained a holy man to a rock, and also that after seventeen years the man is dead.

He ferries the two clergymen to the rock where they find an emaciated but still-living Gregorius. He unlocks the chain, and Gregorius goes off with the clergymen and becomes pope. As pope, he one day recognizes a poor and penitent woman as his mother, although she does not recognize him. He tells her who he is, and that their penance was sufficient to be forgiven by God.

A real rollercoaster of a story for the 12th century! But was this inspired by a legend of a pope who was the product of incest? Unknown, but incest does haunt the record of a pope who is also reputed to have been born of a concubine. Tomorrow let's look at the disturbing reign of Pope John XII.

The Poet Knight

Hartmann von Aue (born c.1160) started as a member of the lower nobility in Swabia. We don't know precisely where he was born; the "von Aue" tacked onto his name is because he became a knight in the service of the Lords of Aue (Obernau by the River Neckar).

He was educated at a monastery school and became a minor minister at the Swabian court. Whether at the monastery or later we don't know, but besides German he had knowledge of French and Latin. He participated in a Crusade, either the Third Crusade in 1189 or its followup in 1197 (called the "Emperor's Crusade"), when Hohenstaufen Emperor Henry VI tried to redeem the efforts of his father, Emperor Frederick I "Barbarossa," during the Third.

Outside of his knightly duties he was a poet and songwriter. He is considered one of the three great epic poets of Middle High German, along with Wolfram von Eschenbach and Gottfried von Strasburg.

Four narrative poems came from Hartmann's pen, two of which, Erec and Iwein, are part of the Arthurian cycle and help to introducer that subject into German epic poetry. They are based, respectively, on Eric and Enide and Yvain, the Knight of the Lion by Chrétien de Troyes.

The other two are Gregorius, adapted from a French epic, and Der arme Heinrich, which tells the story of a leper cured by a young girl.

The date of his death is unknown, but von Strasburg, writing in his "Tristan" c.1210 mentions that Hartmann is still living, while Heinrich von dem Türlin, in his Arthurian poem "Krone" ("The Crown"; c.1215-1220) says Hartmann is deceased.

Gregorius is quite unusual, and a summary here would make this post very long, so I think I'll save it for tomorrow.

Types of Knight

It was mentioned that John de Coupland was made a "knight banneret" after service to King Edward III. What was the significance of this?

The typical knight, the "basic" knight, was a "knight bachelor." This position existed in England during the reign of Henry III (1216 - 1272). The word "bachelor" denoted a junior rank, and had nothing to do with marital status. In fact, a wife gained some status when her husband was knighted. A knight bachelor would be addressed as "Sir John Smith" or "Sir John," and his wife would be addressed as "Lady Smith." The same naming convention applies in modern times.

The knight does not have any letters after his name the way, say, Members of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire get to write "MBE" after their name. Conversely, you may be given an honor such as the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire, but this does not come with the honorific "Sir" or "Lady." It is an honor, not a title.

A 'knight banneret' was different from a knight bachelor. The outward sign that one was a knight banneret was, as the name implies, a knight who had a banner. Knights bachelor fought under the banner of their lord. A knight banneret could have his own coat of arms on a banner in battles, and could have his own contingent in battle who bore his standard. That standard was a squared banner, not a tapering standard or pennon (see illustration of a knight banneret).

The banneret was not a hereditary title like count or duke that could be passed to sons, but it had other benefits. The knight banneret would be paid more during war time. The wife of a knight banneret could be called banneress. Because the banneret title was given for valor in battle or special service to the king, it often led also, for the recipient, additional privileges such as other titles or estates. The 14th century saw some confusion when some knights banneret also were elevated as barons. Which designation was more appropriate? The resolution was to refer to the subject as a baron in a civil context and as a banneret in a military context, when they could request a higher rate of pay.

The knight bachelor had no distinguishing insignia that would compare to the other's banner. In 1926, however, King George V authorized the wearing of a badge for knights bachelor on appropriate occasions. (Illustrated.)

The illustration at top is of Hartmann von Aue, a 12th-century German knight. Let's talk about him tomorrow.

John de Coupland's Mistake

When John de Coupland apprehended King David II of Scotland during the Battle of Neville's Cross in 1346(see illustration), his future was secured. The ransom of a king would have set up John and his descendants forever. It didn't work that way, however. John's duty was to hand such a prisoner over to John's liege lord, King Edward III.

Edward was in France, however (which was why David thought it was a good time for attacking England). So John had to secure his prisoner until he could properly hand him over. They were in the middle of battle, however, so John rode 15 leagues to get away from the ongoing battle and any Scots who might try to rescue their king. He arrived at a castle in Ogle, well north of the battle site, and stopped there to secure the prisoner.

Word got around, and Edward's queen, Philippa, sent word that King David was to be brought to her, as the highest ranking person in England at the time. John refused, saying he would only surrender David to the king. Philippa was outraged at this snub, and wrote to Edward in Calais. Edward sent his messengers to go to England and tell de Coupland to appear before the king in Calais ASAP. John made sure David was secure, and went to Calais.

When he came before Edward, John explained that he did not mean to offend the queen, but he felt his duty was to the man to whom he made his oath of loyalty. King Edward forgave him the slight to the queen, and gave him the order to return to England and hand his captive over to Philippa.

At that point John de Coupland's life changed. Edward made him a knight banneret and £500 per year for life, plus an additional £100 for staying by the king with 20 men at arms. This was a very large boost to his fortunes, since he had only been earning £20 per year previously for his service. de Coupland went back to England and took David to Philippa, who had gone north to York. She brought David back to the Tower in London, where he was made comfortable. (He had already been attended by physicians who had removed most of two arrows in his face.) He was England's captive for 11 years, until 1357.

de Coupland was also made the Constable of Roxburgh Castle and the Sheriff of Roxburghsire (although the Castle title was mostly honorary, since at the time it was under Scottish control—its possession went back and forth between England and Scotland). He had other titles which would have brought him revenue. He became a very wealthy landowner in the north of England.

He was killed on 20 December 1363 by a band of men. Edward ordered an inquiry, which determined that it was a premeditated attack, and identified several names of men involved. They perpetrators all fled north to Scotland, however, and no retribution came about. de Coupland likely made enemies in the north by owning so much land and by his history as the man who captured the Scottish king.

Now, as to the term "knight banneret." How was that different from just being a knight? What were the different types of knight? We'll go into that next time.

King David's Ransom

During the Battle of Neville's Cross, when King David II of Scotland heeded France's request to attack England as part of their Auld Alliance, David realized things were going ill for him. Although the Scots had the greater numbers, and the belief was that the English army was fully engaged on the continent in the Hundred Years War, England had left its northern forces behind, precisely because Edward III didn't trust Scotland.

David had dismounted to fight, and his location on the battlefield had become unclear. He had taken two arrows to his face, and attempted to hide from the enemy. Contemporary accounts state that he hid under a bridge over the River Browney. A group of English soldiers near the bridge saw him reflected in the water of the river and moved to capture him. He fought back and knocked out two teeth of John de Coupland, who took him prisoner.

David was held prisoner from 1346 to 1357. First he was brought to Bamburgh Castle, where surgeons tried to remove the arrows. The tip of one could not be removed and was the cause of headaches for the rest of his life. (John Bradmore would have been useful here, but he was still a child. He was then taken to London and put in the Tower. When Edward III returned from France, David was transferred to Windsor Castle. Finally, David and his household were put in Odiham Castle (its ruins are pictured above). Captivity for a king was generally comfortable, but in 1355 he was forbidden any contact with his family, which may have accelerated negotiations for his ransom (Edward was always looking for more money for his wars).

On 3 October 1357, a treaty was signed that gave 10,000 marks each year for ten years as ransom. He returned to Scotland with an English mistress, Katherine Mortimer. (David had married Edward III's sister, Joan of the Tower, in 1328 when she was seven and he was four. They had no children. She died in 1362.) Mortimer was killed in 1360 by men hired by the Earl of Angus. David had another mistress, Margaret Drummond, whom he married in 1364. (Then he took another mistress, Agnes Dunbar.)

This ransom plan worked for a few years, but the Scottish nobles could not raise 10,000 marks in 1363, and David went to London to try to re-negotiate a settlement. He offered to leave Scotland to Edward or one of his many sons in David's will. In 1364 Scotland's Parliament rejected a proposal for Edward's son Lionel of Antwerp to become the next king. David kept talking to Edward, prolonging the consequences of non-payment (which would mean going back into captivity).

David died on 22 February 1371, aged 46. He was buried quickly in the nearest likely place, in Holyrood Abbey. He wished to be buried near his parents in Dunfermline, but his successor, Robert II, wanted to "conclude" David's reign as quickly as possible to begin his own.

Now, the transition above between paragraphs two and three was hardly a transition at all: it would appear that from his capture to his captivity just "happened" in a flash. It wasn't that easy, and John de Coupland almost got in trouble for it. When the dust settled, however, de Coupland made out extremely well. I'll explain his almost fall but steady rise tomorrow.

The Battle of Neville's Cross

Scotland's relationship with England has always been an issue on the island of Great Britain. They were "friendly enemies," since England would have loved to possess the entirety of the island. Sometimes it pursued this aim through warfare, sometimes through supporting or installing a king of Scotland that would be loyal to England's king. For its part, Scotland sometimes could not help but invade southward to gain real estate and resources, or simply go to war against England to assert its independence.

To that end, there were over the years what are called the wars of Scottish Independence. They were successful in that Scotland managed to maintain its independence from England. During the Second War of Scottish Independence, which took place between the years 1332 and 1357, one of the battles was fought at Neville's Cross, right next to Durham England.

The catalyst for this particular battle was not any particular incident of aggression between the countries. Scotland had made a treaty with France in 1295 called "the Auld Alliance" against their common antagonist, England. France was fighting England in the Hundred Years War, and called on Scotland to help based on the treaty. England was currently invading France, and Scotland's attack could either weaken England for a later counter-invasion by France or cause England to pull troops away from France.

As it turns out, it did neither. Scotland's army of 10-12,000 was led by King David II. They were met by Ralph, Lord Neville with about 6-7000 men. The Scots were soundly defeated and David captured. His ransoming effort also created a truce between the two countries that lasted four decades.

How did the superior numbers lose the battle? France convinced the Scots that they would have an easy time of it with the English army on the continent, but the English had plenty of soldiers at home who were more experienced. The Scottish army had a few noblemen on horseback, but the majority were on foot and had swords and daggers and shields. They had a few archers. The English had more archers with longbows and rained arrows on the Scots until the fighting got closer, and more plate armor.

Before being stopped at Neville's Cross (so-called because of an Anglo-Saxon stone cross at the location), the Scots did do damage to the countryside. They destroyed a castle called the Peel of Liddell and plundered the Great Priory of Hexham. They would have sacked Carlisle, but the city offered them money to leave them alone.

During the battle, King David had dismounted to fight on foot. At one point he decided to hide. I want to talk about his discovery, capture, and ransom next. See you tomorrow.

Holyrood Abbey

In 1127, while King David of Scotland was hunting in the forests east of Edinburgh, his horse was startled by a hart and bucked; David was thrown from the horse, and the hart charged at him, antlers first. David threw up his hands to grasp the antlers, when suddenly a shining cross appeared between the antlers, causing the beast to pause and saving the king's life.

The day happened to be the Feast of the Cross, celebrating the finding of the True Cross by Saint Helena. David decided to found an abbey the following year on the spot, which he named Holyrood ("holy + cross"). In its church was a reliquary with a piece of the True Cross that David's mother, Saint Margaret, brought from Waltham Abbey (supposed burial place of Harold). (In 1346 this relic fell into the hands of the English after the Battle of Neville's Cross.)

It was originally occupied by Canons Regular from Merton Priory. (At about this time, Thomas Becket [born c.1120] was starting as a student at Merton.) The place became an important location for councils. The papal legates to Scotland would have councils there. When David's grandson, William the Lion, was captured at the Battle of Alnwick (not the same one where David's father was killed), the nobles met at Holyrood to discuss his ransom. Scotland's parliament met there several times between 1256 and 1410. Robert the Bruce also held a parliament there.

After the mid-1400s, the kings of Scotland began using it as a residence while at Edinburgh. In the second half of the 1500s, parts of it were in such a state of disrepair that they need to be closed down, demolished, and completely rebuilt. Evidence of the ruins shows that the original structure was not built to the same standards as the rest of Europe. The aisle vaults had thin flagstones and the vertical pieces were constructed with, let's say, less attention to straight lines than we would like to see in a building that had tons of stone suspended over your head. In 1686, James VII established a Jesuit College there. A year later the abbey was converted to a Roman Catholic Chapel. Its use became increasingly religious again, taking interest in it out of public interest. Without royal attention, the fabric began to decay more. The roof collapsed in 1768 and was never replaced. Proposals to rebuild and restore have never come to fruition, but the ruins (see illustration) continue to be a tourist destination.

Tomorrow, let's jump ahead in time to the Battle of Neville's Cross, part of the Second Scottish War of Independence, that lost the piece of the True Cross.

The Davidian Revolution

When David I became King of Scotland, little did the world know that the previous three decades of short reigns and rebellions would be replaced by three decades of reform and growth.

David was the youngest son of Malcolm III and Margaret of Wessex, and since his father's death in 1093 had seen an uncle and several brothers take their turns on the throne. David was not expected to have his turn, but was given part of Scotland to manage, which gave him the title Prince of the Cumbrians (overseeing the former Kingdom of Strathclyde) starting in 1113.

This was promoted by the king of England, Henry I, who cultivated David's friendship. Henry also, in 1113, arranged for David his marriage to Matilda of Huntingdon (and why not? Henry was married to David's sister, also called Matilda). This brought to David the "Honour of Huntingdon" which was a large area in northern England. This helped David increase his wealth and power even before achieving the throne.

When David became king in 124, he set about transforming Scotland into a country that more closely resembled the rest of Europe in its civil and political structure. He was able to do this partly by bringing in Norman support. He built castles and set up a feudal system of smaller and larger lordships. He established sheriffs to carry out administrative duties on behalf of the king. He also created two justiciars to preside over law cases, one each for above and below the river Forth.

He was able to mine silver at Alston to create Scotland's first silver coinage and further increase his power. One of the side-effects of minting coins with the king's image and seal is that those who come in contact with them are constantly reminded of the source of wealth and power, reinforcing loyalty to the king who has them.

Scotland until this time did not have organized towns or burghs as the rest of Europe and England knew them. Roxburgh and Berwick were created while he was prince of the Cumbrians, with definite boundaries, charters, and trading rights. Once he became king, he made more burghs at Stirling, Dunfermline and Edinburgh. More were to follow.

Religious reform was another of his goals, begun by his mother. David became one of Scotland's great monastic patrons, founding various abbeys. He increased the number of bishops in Scotland (from four to nine, according to Aelred of Rievaulx), but it is more likely that this expansion was brought about by of Thurstan, Archbishop of York, with Fergus of Galloway.

The reign was not entirely easy for him. He took sides in the period in England called The Anarchy, and lost the Battle of the Standard when he invaded England to support Empress Matilda. By and large, though, he is remembered for the "Europeanization" of Scotland.

One of the well-known abbeys he founded was Holyrood, which has an interesting legend about it. I'll share that tomorrow.

Alexander I

The fifth son of Malcolm III and Margaret of Wessex, Alexander got to be king of Scotland after Malcolm's death only after his uncle and his half-brother and his uncle (again) and his brother had their chance.

When Edgar died in 1107, he wanted Alexander to succeed him. He also wanted their younger brother, David, to have something of his own, so David was given an appanage. An appanage (from Latin adpanare, literally "to give bread") was traditionally a grant of land for a younger son who normally would not be in the line of succession because of primogeniture. David was given an appanage in southern Scotland, the former kingdom of Strathclyde. This was supported by Henry I of England, the boys' brother-in-law through marriage to their sister Edith, now called Matilda.

Another matrimonial link between the two countries took place when Alexander married Sybilla of Normandy. She was the first child of Henry I with his mistress, Lady Sybilla Corbet. We don't know when they married, but Sybilla was born c.1092, and they were married by 1114 when she was 22. In 1114 Alexander joined Henry on campaign in Wales against Gruffudd ap Cynan of Gwynedd.

Alexander and Sybilla seemed to be a devoted couple, but childless. She died in 1122 while at the village of Kenmore, and Alexander planned an Augustinian Priory at the location. He did not remarry.

Alexander later gained the nickname "the Fierce" because of his short temper with his subjects, but that temper supposedly was never aimed at clergy. He was considered very pious, like his wife. He was the senior lay person in 1104 when the remains of St. Cuthbert were examined before their re-interment, when Ralph d'Escures declared that the saint's body was uncorrupted. He founded religious institutions at Scone and Inchcolm, and had towers built at Dunfermline Abbey where his mother was buried.

His fierceness was earned when he was attacked by men from Moray, where the family of Macbeth ruled who had been his family's enemy not too long before. He pushed them and soundly defeated them.

Alexander died in April 1124, leaving the kingdom to David, who ruled for nearly 30 years and made so many changes that scholars refer to the Davidian Revolution. I'll explain just what changes he made next time.

Edgar Takes the Reigns

Donald III of Scotland grabbed the throne, then lost it to his nephew Duncan, then grabbed it again. This second time around, Donald was in his early 60s and had no heir of his own. He likely designated his nephew Edmund as his heir. (He did have one known daughter, Bethoc, who married the Lord of Tyndale.)

Edmund was the son of Malcolm III, but when Malcolm and the eldest brother Edward died, Edmund chose to side with his uncle Donald instead of having the throne go to one of Malcolm's other sons, such as himself or Edgar or Ethelred. William of Malmesbury said Edmund bargained "for half the kingdom" from Donald; if true, it suggests that Edmund would inherit the kingdom after Donald.

Malcolm and Margaret's next surviving son, Edgar, gained the support of English King William Rufus. According to Malmesbury, Edgar and his uncle, Edgar Ætheling, invaded Scotland with the military support of the Anglo-Normans and that Donald was "slain by the craftiness of David [Malcolm and Margaret's youngest]... and by the strength of William [Rufus]." Historian John of Fordun, writing years later, says Donald was blinded and imprisoned. He supposedly died in 1099 at the age of 67, having spent his last years in captivity.

Malcolm's son Edgar then became Edgar I of Scotland (his seal is shown above). Although he reigned for a decade (1097 - 1107), he never gained complete control of all parts of Scotland. Military support from William II "Rufus" of England would have helped, but William had his own issues like a revolt in Northumbria and spending time in Normandy, which he purchased from his brother Robert Curthose.

Still, Edgar maintained a relationship with the English court, and not as a vassal to the English king. Records show the king paying for Edgar's expenses at court, which would not be necessary if William were Edgar's feudal lord. He seems to have been an honored guest. Edgar was sword-bearer for the king in the inauguration of the new Westminster Hall. After William's death, however, this closeness ended: he was not present at Henry I's coronation.

A few notable events appear in the sparse records of his reign. He signed a treaty with Magnus Barefoot of Norway, creating a firm border with Norwegian claims in the western part of the north. He also gave a unique gift to the High King of Ireland, Gael Muirchertach Ua Briain. It was a camel (but might have been an elephant) brought back from the First Crusade. He also connected with Anselm of Canterbury to bring back the monks of Canterbury that Donald had expelled from his mother's favorite Dunfermline Abbey.

Edgar never married. He died on 8 January 1107, leaving his brother Alexander as his successor—but not for the whole country. His will also granted their younger brother David the former kingdom of Strathclyde. This did not make David a king: he was still a prince and his older brother's subject. As for Alexander himself, he did not gain a reputation as a nice king, but that's a story for tomorrow.

The Repeat King

So when Malcolm III of Scotland died, his brother swept in and became King Donald III before Malcolm's sons could succeed their father. The sons fled to England for safety, reckoning they had no chance. There was one son of Malcolm who thought differently, however, and he was not a son this blog has recently covered.

Prior to his marriage to Margaret of Wessex, Malcolm had another wife, the Norwegian Ingibiorg Finnsdottir. Details are sketchy about this marriage, but they had at least one son, Duncan. In the initial clashes between Scotland and Duke William of Normandy, Duncan was offered as a hostage. Duncan was therefore being raised in Normandy. When William died in 1087, his son Robert Curthose released Duncan and knighted him. Duncan chose to go to England serve Robert's brother, William Rufus. Clearly, Malcolm had "written off" his eldest son by his first marriage, since he had declared his eldest by Margaret his heir.

Back in Scotland, Donald was having trouble: not everyone welcomed his return and rule. Duncan bagged negotiating with some of the landowners and local barons, making promises of land and titles. William Rufus gave him Norman military support. Within a year of Donald taking the throne, Duncan arrived at the head of an army in the summer of 1094. Donald was defeated, retreating to the Scottish Highlands.

Duncan was crowned king at Scone, but only controlled the southern part. The locals did not appreciate someone they saw as essentially an English vassal, or the presence of the Normans with him. This created discontent. He decided to send his foreign allies back to England, which created its own problems. Duncan had trouble with raids by rebels, and was forced to negotiate with them rather than defeat them.

Meanwhile, Donald was gathering his forces. After only a few months of rule, Duncan was attacked by Donald's army and killed in an ambush on 12 November.

Donald was, once again, King of Scotland, less than a year after being ousted. He chose his nephew, Malcolm's son Edmund, who had supported him after Malcolm's death, as his heir and co-ruler. This did not sit well with Edmund's siblings, as we shall see.