Wighard, the Almost Archbishop

When Deusdedit was Archbishop of Canterbury (from 655 to 664), he had in his household a Saxon priest named Wighard. The date of Deusdedit's death is recorded by Bede; twice in fact. Unfortunately, in each of those instances the description of when he died differs significantly. Whatever the case, however, there is no confusion that Wighard was elected as his successor, and sent to Rome to be consecrated and accept the pallium from Pope Vitalian. Sending him to Rome instead of requesting the pallium to be delivered would be a stronger symbol of papal approval.

There may be no confusion about Wighard being the successor, but exactly how he was chosen is, again, up for debate because Bede tells two different stories. Bede's Historia Abbatum (a history of the abbots of Wearmouth and Jarrow) stated that he was chosen by King Ecgberht of Kent. Fifteen years later, Bede's Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum ("Ecclesiastical History of the English People") stated that he was chosen by Ecgberht and King Oswiu of Northumbria and Bernicia with the consent of all the clergy.

Some historians prefer the second story, because they think Oswiu would have involved himself in the choice in order to avoid the chance of the headstrong and influential Wilfrid being selected. Bede mentions a letter from Pope Vitalian to Oswiu, indicating that a messenger from Oswiu accompanied Wighard. The letter also apologizes to Oswiu that Vitalian had not yet found a replacement for Wighard.

A replacement for Wighard? As it turns out, Wighard died in Rome some time between 664 and 667. Plague was a possible cause, bubonic or otherwise. It is assumed that Wighard never actually got consecrated, and so was not officially an Archbishop of Canterbury, although he often gets mentioned in lists of that position.

Wighard is sufficiently obscure so far as artists go that there is no representation of him to post here as an illustration. I have instead chosen to share a screen shot of a novel written about his death. The author creates a mystery about his death and sets his heroine, a Celtic nun, to solve the murder. Since we know so little about him and his death, the event is ripe for creative elaboration.

So where did Vitalian find a candidate for the position? I told this story almost exactly 10 years ago! I'll quote you the relevant paragraph here:

Bede tells the story of Adrian of Canterbury in his Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum ["Ecclesiastical history of the English people"]. Adrian was born in North Africa—we don't know when, but he died about 710—and was abbot of a monastery when Pope Vitalian ... offered him the position of Archbishop of Canterbury on the death of Archbishop Deusdedit in 664. Adrian turned down the offer, and suggested a nearby monk, who also declined. When the pope asked Adrian a second time, Adrian introduced to the pope another friend who happened to be in Rome, Theodore of Tarsus.

Which brings us back to Theodore of Tarsus. The Adrian mentioned here had been to England, and Vitalian asked him to go with Theodore to help show the way. They set out for England in 668, about four years after the death of the last Archbishop of Canterbury. Tomorrow we'll see what impact on the English Church Theodore had.

Theodore of Tarsus

This blog has covered many men and women from the past who, at a young age, decided to take on a religious lifestyle, whether in a monastery or as a hermit or a parish priest. Some of them came to greater prominence as leaders of orders or monasteries, usually in their home countries. Theodore of Tarsus probably experienced a more radical shift from his origin to his ultimate career than anyone.

He was born in 602CE in Tarsus, a town (now part of Turkey) on the Cydnus (now Berdan) River on the far eastern coast of the Mediterranean. He was of Greek descent, and grew up speaking Greek, the language most common in Tarsus. The Byzantine Empire at the time was frequently warring with the Persian Sassanid Empire, and Tarsus suffered for it. Persian forces captured Tarsus in 613-614; later evidence suggests that Theodore was familiar with Persian culture. He probably studied at Antioch, several days' journey south.

The Persian occupation at the eastern end of the Mediterranean was still amenable to Greeks, but in 637 Tarsus and the surrounding area were conquered by Muslims. Theodore went to Constantinople, where he studied astronomy, astrology, medicine, Roman civil law, Greek rhetoric and philosophy, and how to calculate the date of Easter.

At some point in his 50s, he took the long trip to Rome and stayed with a community of monks, during which time he added Latin language and literature to his repertoire. When the See of Canterbury fell unexpectedly vacant in 667, Theodore was chosen to become the new archbishop by his new friend, Pope Vitalian. Theodore was consecrated Archbishop of Canterbury in Rome on 26 March 668, and arrived in on 27 May 669.

Before we get to his career in England, however, I want to talk briefly about his election and his predecessor. For Theodore, it was an example of being in the right place at the right time. See you tomorrow.

Saint Wilfrid, Part Two

Wilfrid's knowledge of Roman Christianity and his opposition to Celtic Christianity made him the ideal candidate to attend the Synod of Whitby in 664 to determine which form should take precedence in England, especially regarding the date on which Easter is celebrated each year.

His arguments won, and Ahlfrith, son of King Oswiu of Bernicia, appointed Wilfrid Bishop of Northumbria. Wilfrid felt that there were no validly consecrated bishops in England who could consecrate him, so he traveled to Gaul—where earlier he had spent several formative years—to be made bishop. He was consecrated by Bishop Agilbert of Paris, who had attended Whitby. (Agilbert did not speak the local language, and so Wilfrid was his interpreter.) While he was out of England, his patron Ahlfrith led a revolt against Oswiu. When Bishop Wilfrid returned to Northumbria, he found his appointment there had been canceled and another man put in his place, so he went to stay at the monastery at Ripon.

In 668, Theodore of Tarsus became Archbishop of Canterbury. Theodore re-appointed Wilfrid as bishop of Northumbria. Wilfrid spent the next nine years building churches and founding monasteries. Wilfrid also wanted to make changes to the liturgy nd establish some religious reforms, but so did Theodore of Tarsus, and the two did not always agree. When Wilfrid had a dispute with Ecgfrith, King of Northumbria (another son of Oswiu), the archbishop took the opportunity to step in, establish his reforms over Wilfrid's, and also break up the large diocese into smaller divisions that would be easier to administer with three new bishops. Ecgfrith expelled Wilfrid, who traveled to Rome to get the pope's support. Pope Agatho (577 – 10 January 681) determined that the division of the large diocese was acceptable, but Wilfrid should be allowed to name the new bishops. Ecgfrith ignored the pope's wishes and imprisoned Wilfrid when he returned to Northumbria, because Wilfrid convinced Ecgfrith's wife, Æthelthryth, that she should practice saintly celibacy.

Later, exiled from Northumbria, Wilfrid went to the Kingdom of Sussex where he converted them to Christianity. Theodore, pleased, made peace with Wilfrid and persuaded the new king of Northumbria, Aldfrith (also a son of Oswiu), to take Wilfrid back. This only lasted until 691, when Aldfrith found reason to expel Wilfrid again. Aldfrith, like his brother, did not support Bishop Wilfrid's pope-granted right to name bishops. Moreover, Aldfrith still embraced Celtic Christianity. Wilfrid was banished and went to Mercia.

He enjoyed a good relationship with King Æthelred of Mercia, who made him bishop of the Middle Angles. A papal-initiated council was held in South Yorkshire in 702 to determine Wilfrid's rights and authority. The assembled English prelates decided that Wilfrid should have all his titles and possessions (parishes) confiscated. Wilfrid appealed to the pope, and regained the northern monasteries of Ripon and Hexham (the Wilfrid Chapel at Hexham Abbey is shown above). He died in 709/710. Although he created controversy for many, including his fellow religious, he was revered as a saint.

It is past time to give Theodore of Tarsus some attention, the Greek who fled Persia as a child and wound up in the top position of the English Church. See you tomorrow.

Saint Wilfrid, Part One

Bede's Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum ("History of the Church of the English People") lists Wilfrid as one of the men who contributed to the development of the English Church. Bede's writing, and a biography written shortly after Wilfrid's death by a priest at Ripon called Stephen, tell us a lot about his life (although of course some may be more legend than fact).

Wilfrid (c.633/4 - 709/10) was a Northumbrian noble who chose the religious life as a teenager, leaving his home after a falling out with his stepmother. He found a patroness in Queen Eanflæd, wife of King Oswiu of Bernicia and Northumbria. She sent him to Lindisfarne to study. After a few years he went to Canterbury (where he met the missionary Benedict Biscop), then to Francia (kingdom of the Franks, during the time of Clovis II), and to Rome.

Benedict Biscop was with him on the trip to Rome (between 653 and 658). Some say this is the first pilgrimage to Rome made by English natives. The two men parted company when Wilfrid stayed in Lyon, where the archbishop Annemund wanted Wilfrid to marry his niece and become governor of a Frankish province (Wilfrid was not yet ordained). Wilfrid chose to resume his pilgrimage. In Rome he learned the Roman way to calculate the date of Easter. He met the pope, and then returned to Lyon, where he stayed for three years. When his acquaintance Annemund was murdered (slandered as a traitor because he did not attend a royal event), Wilfrid returned to England, arriving by 660.

While on the continent, he learned Frankish ecclesiastical practices. This created a preference in him when later he was made a bishop. He believed there were no appropriately consecrated bishops in England who could consecrate him, so he went to Gaul for the ceremony.

King Oswiu's son Aldfrith took an interest in Wilfrid, and gave Wilfrid a new monastery at Ripon founded by monks from Melrose Abbey. They followed Irish monastic customs, not Roman, and Wilfrid ejected their abbot for refusing to change. Another monk he expelled for refusing to change was Cuthbert. Wilfrid introduced and enforced the Rule of St. Benedict.

This insistence on Roman Christianity made him the ideal candidate to speak on its behalf at the Synod of Whitby. I'll go into that and the rest of his life tomorrow.

The "Oldest" Benedictines

If, of the members of the Benedictine Confederation, the Camaldolese Congregation was founded in 980, and the Vallombrosians in 1036, how can the English Congregation, founded in 1216, claim to be the oldest member of the Confederation?

Pope Honorius III took a special interest in the monastic orders. He approved the Dominicans in 1216, the Franciscans in 1223, and the Carmelites in 1226. It was his idea that the various abbeys and priories with Benedictine monastic communities in England be united. The first General Chapter of this united congregation was held in Oxford in 1218. The origins of Benedictines in England go back much further than the 13th century, however, thanks principally to three individuals.

Augustine of Canterbury's arrival in England at the tail end of the 6th century CE was the start of the first great wave of Christianizing on that island. He was created the first Archbishop of Canterbury and had an enormous impact on bringing Christianity to several kingdoms, along with founding monasteries.

Immediately following Augustine was Wilfrid (c.633 - 709/710), a Northumbrian noble who entered the religious life as a teenager and became the first abbot of a monastery in Ripon dedicated to St. Peter. He later became bishop of York (York did not become an archbishopric until 735 with Paulinus). Wilfrid was the spokesman for Roman Christianity (as opposed to Celtic Christianity) at the Synod of Whitby in 664. His arguments on how the date of Easter should be calculated each year won over the Celtic St. Cuthbert.

The third highly influential figure in the early origins of English Christianity and monasticism was Benedict Biscop (c. 628 – 690). He founded the monastery at Jarrow, where among other influences he was the teacher of Bede. Benedict's given name was "Biscop Baducing"; he was not just a noble, he even served under King Oswiu of Bernicia before traveling to Rome and returning to England with enthusiasm for supporting the Church. On a second trip to Rome, Benedict met Wilfrid. Returning from this second trip, he stopped at an island off the coast of Provence, where a monastery was using the Rule of St. Benedict. He spent two years there, taking vows, learning the Rule, and adopting the name "Benedict." After a third trip to Rome, Pope Vitalian asked him to go back to England with Theodore of Tarsus. After doing so, Theodore appointed Benedict abbot at Canterbury.

The English Congregation now has about 20 houses (Ealing in London is shown above), with a few hundred monks and nuns spread across them.

We have a lot of info about Wilfrid based on those who knew him, especially Bede and a monk who wrote a biography of Wilfrid shortly after his death. I'd like to share some of his life story over the next two days.

The Sylvestrines

The Benedictine Confederation is an alliance of monastic orders who follow the Rules of the Benedictines. Some of these orders were founded a thousand years ago. One group that started in the 13th century is the Sylvestrines.

They were started by Sylvester Gozzolini (1177 - 1267), who chose the religious life fairly early. His father's wish was that he study law, but that goal did not appeal, and he decided to study theology (causing his father to refuse to speak to him for ten years). He joined the Augustinians at Osimo Cathedral in Osimo, a town on the Adriatic, but in 1227 left that group to live a life as a hermit.

This 50-year-old man living an austere life—sleeping on the ground, living on herbs and water, praying all day—drew disciples to him. In 1231, a vision of Benedict of Nursia inspired him to form a community with his followers. Finding an old pagan temple at Monte Fano, Fabriano, Italy, he demolished it and built a monastery.

He followed the Rule of St. Benedict, but was far more strict on the subject of poverty. Pope Innocent IV approved the order, calling it the Ordo S. Benedicti de Montefano, "Order of St. Benedict of Mount Fano." Another difference from other Benedictine groups is the wearing of a dark blue habit instead of black. By the time of Sylvester's death, there were almost a dozen monasteries founded along his system.

Although surviving mostly in Italy, they did send missionaries outside of Europe. They currently have missions in Ceylon, the United States, Australia, India, the Philippines, and the Democratic Republic of Congo. The statue of Sylvester shown here is on the grounds of St. Sylvester's College in Sri Lanka, a boys school founded in 1940 with 6000 students.

He was canonized in 1598 by Pope Clement VIII, and his feast day is 26 November.

The next and last member of the Benedictine Confederation we will look at is the English Benedictine Congregation, which although founded in 1216, can be called the oldest member of the Confederation, even though the Vallombrosians were founded in 1036 and the Camaldolese in 980! I'll explain tomorrow.

The Vallombrosians

Giovanni Gualberto (c. 985 – 12 July 1073) was not the sort of person you would expect to found a monastic order. A nobleman born in a castle, he hunted down the man who killed his brother in order to get revenge. Finding the man in Florence, he was about to exact his revenge when the man threw himself on the ground with arms outstretched in the form of a cross and begged for mercy in the name of Christ.

Giovanni had a change of heart and forgave the man. On his way home, he stopped at the church at San Miniato to pray. Legend says that the figure of Christ on the crucifix bowed its head to him, supposedly in recognition of his act of mercy. This is the subject of the 19th century artist Burne-Jones' painting of "The Merciful Knight" (shown here).

Giovanni decided to cut his hair and start wearing a borrowed monk's habit. He joined the monastery at San Miniato, but felt he needed a more ascetic life. He spent some time with the monks at Camaldoli, but eventually founded his own monastery at Vallombrosa in 1036.

The Vallombrosian Congregation is now part of the Benedictine Confederation and has nine houses and a few dozen monks, but for it to have nine locations suggests great popularity in the past (see below). Giovanni adopted the Rule of St. Benedict, but stressed more austerity than the Rule. Poverty is strictly enforced, silence is mandatory and constant, cloistering is essential: the monks did not leave the premises even to help others. While the Rule of St. Benedict requires work, Giovanni's system required lay brothers to do any essential work, while the monks themselves spent their entire day in silence and contemplation. They wore habits originally of gray or ash-colored, but now wear the traditional Benedictine garb.

After Giovanni's death, the order spread, especially after a bull by Pope Urban II in 1090 gave the Vallombrosians papal support and protection. A bull by Pope Paschal II in 1115 mentions 12 Vallombrosian houses, and one by Pope Anastasius IV mentions 24. In Pope Innocent III's time there were more than 60 houses.

Giovanni was canonized in 1193 by Pope Celestine III.

The Benedictine Confederation has members all over the world, many founded in the 19th century. There were two other groups founded in the 13th century, the Silvestrines and the English. We will talk about the Silvestrine Congregation next.

Camaldolese Hermits

The earliest-founded monastic group that is currently part of the Benedictine Confederation is the Camaldolese Hermits of Mount Corona. It was established about 980 CE by the Italian monk, Saint Romuald.

Romuald (c. 950 - 1025/27) was born in an aristocratic family in Ravenna, in northeastern Italy. An indulged and indulgent youth, at the age of 20 his life changed when he was his father's second in a duel. Seeing his father win the duel—in which he killed a relative over a property dispute—changed the young man. Romuald did 40 days of penance for his part in the affair, and became a monk at the Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Ravenna.

Although his location followed the Cluniac Order, Romuald wanted something more strict, and he raised the ire of his comrades by criticizing their excesses and lapses. He was given permission to leave the monastery; he went to live under the guidance of a strict hermit in Venice.

In a parallel to Romuald's turning point, we turn to the doge of Venice in 978, Pietro I Orseolo. Pietro had taken the position after being involved in a conspiracy to overthrow his predecessor, Pietro IV Candiano. Orseolo, feeling remorse for his actions two years earlier, left Venice in the middle of the night without telling anyone, not even his family, and went with Romuald and others to join the Benedictines at at Saint-Michel-de-Cuxa in southern France.

Over the next several years, Romuald refined his ideas of monasticism, then spent 30 years traveling Italy and preaching the benefits of a strict monastic life, founding and reforming monasteries. An attempt to be abbot at the Basilica of Sant'Apollinare on the invitation of Holy Roman Emperor Otto III failed, since the monks objected to his reforms.

In 1012 he arrived in Arezzo, where he was given land in Camaldoli, upon which Romuald built five hermit cells; these and a monastery built two years later became the motherhouse for the Camaldolese Order.

Romuald's idea of a proper life was laid out in his rule, entitled "Empty yourself completely and sit waiting." His central advice for monks and hermits was:

Sit in your cell as in paradise. Put the whole world behind you and forget it. Watch your thoughts like a good fisherman watching for fish. The path you must follow is in the Psalms — never leave it.

There are a dozen locations that are part of the Camaldolese Congregation totaling several dozen members.

Before settling in Arezzo, Romuald stayed for a time in Vallombrosa. Years later, a monk stayed at Camaldoli for awhile, and then started his own congregation at Vallombrosa. The next-oldest member of the Benedictine Confederation is the Vallombrosian Congregation, and we'll see what makes them different tomorrow.

The Olivetans

The Rule of St. Benedict was very influential and led to the founding of many monasteries. It was also adopted by groups that started their own orders, leading to a Benedictine Confederation founded in 1893, 19 groups that follow the Rule but are separate orders. One such group is the Olivetans.

The Olivetans, or the Order of Our Lady of Mount Olivet, was "started" in 1313 by Bernardo Tolomei (10 May 1272 – 20 August 1348; see illustration), a Tuscan who was educated by his Dominican uncle and determined to enter the religious life. Originally named Giovanni, after becoming a professor of law at the University of Siena and spending time as a soldier/knight under Rudolph I of Germany, he changed his name to Bernardo (after the Cistercian Bernard of Clairvaux) and started living as a hermit with two friends on property owned by his family.

Somewhere around late 1318 or early 1319, Bernardo had a vision of a ladder with monks dressed in white ascending with the aid of angels to where Jesus and Mary waited for them. He decided to formally found his Order in 1319, using the Rule of St. Benedict, with particular devotion to the Virgin Mary. Pope Clement VI recognized the Order in 1344. A generous merchant constructed a monastery for them at Siena, and several more sprang up in the following years.

Unfortunately for Bernardo, he did not live to see the Order thrive for very long after its recognition by Clement. When the Bubonic Plague came to the shores of Italy, Bernardo and several monks  left the relative solitude and safety of their monastery to Siena, where the people were suffering greatly. The monks tended the sick, and Bernardo himself along with 82 fellow monks contracted the disease and died.

The order survived, however. In 1408, Pope Gregory XII gave them an unused monastery of St. Justina of Padua. Even now they still have 20 houses, although the total number of monks, nuns, and priests in the Order are fewer than 500.

The Benedictine Congregation has 19 different groups, 14 of which were founded after 1500. Some, however, are much older than the Olivetans, and I'd like to share some of their stories starting tomorrow.

The Headless Saint

Saint Miniato, or Minias, was an Armenian prince who made a pilgrimage to Rome in the 3rd century CE. his pilgrimage led him to become a Christian hermit near Florence, creating a hermitage on a hill called the Mons Florentinus (Mount Florence). This was a time when the emperor, Decius (249 - 251), was actively persecuting Christians after a period of tolerance, even killing a pope.

Miniato was brought before Decius and told to sacrifice to the Roman gods. His refusal led to several tortures. He was put into a furnace, then stoned, then put in an amphitheater with a lion. None of these punishments harmed him. Finally, he was taken to the Piazza della Signoria (the meeting place of Florentine politics) in Florence and beheaded. The legend then takes an even more drastic turn than surviving burning and stoning.

Miniato's body picked up his head, crossed the Arno river and walked up the Mons Florentinus to his hermitage. The hill is now called Saint Minias Hill. A shrine was erected there, and there was a chapel by the 8th century.

In 1013, a bishop began a church named for the saint, with a Benedictine monastery adjacent. The high altar is said to contain the bones of Miniato. A Byzantine-style mosaic dated from 1297 of Christ flanked by Mary and Miniato is over the apse (see illustration). Miniato is shown holding a crown because of his royal origin. It also contains a carving of all the zodiac symbols.

A two kilometer pilgrimage exists that mirrors the walk of the headless saint. You can read a description and see some photographs of the views here.

The Benedictine monastery was transferred o the Cluniacs, and then in 1373 to the Olivetans, a group that has never been mentioned in this blog before. I will tell you about them next time.

Medieval Magic

Although the Western European Middle Ages considered themselves thoroughly Christianized, they had plenty of un-Christian "lapses." One was on the subject of magic, twisting nature to match your whims. Magic was thoroughly condemned in both the Old and New Testaments, but practices such as divination via different methods, use of charms and potions for healing, warding off danger, and sorcery were studied and performed.

Astrology as a significant part of the study of magic and the way the world worked. Zodiac signs were considered to correspond to different body parts, and health/illness were connected to astrological influences. This was so accepted that all the signs of the zodiac are engraved on the walls of the San Miniato al Monte basilica in Florence, Italy, begun in 1018 CE. (see illustration)

Divination, the attempt to learn things that are hidden from human faculties or are events in the future, was classified by Isidore of Seville. There were four primary types attached to the four elements (geomancy, hydromancy, aeromancy, and pyromancy), as well as observing the natural world (astrology, birds flying either left or right, etc.).

Medical Magic was acceptable, described in leechbooks. Besides just medicines, there were Masses to bless the herbs used, and actions listed such as spitting and reciting verses to make the cure effective. Even inscribing the names of the evangelists on straws and mixing them with the medicine was considered an important part of ensuring efficacy.

There were attempts to condemn magic over time. In 1456, Bavarian physician Johannes Hartlieb listed seven prohibited arts: the four types of divination of Isidore, as well as nigromancy ("black" magic; not to be confused with necromancy, "corpse" magic), chiromancy (reading palms), and scapulimancy (use of the shoulder blades, scapulae, to foretell the future).

Let's take a closer look at San Miniato al Monte next time, the church founded by a headless saint.

Warding Off Evil

The Classical and Medieval (and Modern, if truth be told) Eras were wary of the world around them, teeming with supernatural forces that could not be controlled. They could, however, be guarded against, a practice the modern age has dubbed Apotropaic Magic. From the Greek word meaning "to ward off," apotropaic magic consists of physical charms, verbal charms, or gestures intended to protect the user from bad luck or evil spirits.

Gestures are simple movements available to anyone. We jokingly "knock on wood" in the hopes that a tree spirit will hear us and make our desires come true. We "cross our fingers" to ensure good luck in an endeavor. If we spill salt—a bad omen—we toss some over our shoulder to throw the bad luck away. Folding our hands in prayer is also an apotropaic gesture.

There are fewer examples of verbal charms. The most commonly used is saying "Bless you" after someone sneezes. Sneezing in some parts of the world was (is?) considered a bad omen, a warning of some future calamity. In the European Middle Ages, sneezing was significant because it was connected to breathing, important for life. A sneeze might mean something bad will happen to your health, and saying "Bless you" is a way to prevent that. The German "Gesundheit" wishes "Wellness" on the sneezer.

More complicated forms of apotropaic magic require preparation. These are charms made to be carried or worn. Some were written down and carried on paper or parchment. Shown above is a magical seal from an English medical manuscript designed to ward off lightning.

Amulets were physical objects designed for protection, sometimes made of amber, but they could be made with any material. In Ireland, a St. Brigid's Day (1 February) custom was to weave a cross of rushes to ward off lightning, sickness, and evil. Horseshoes were nailed over or near doorways for good luck, although their orientation has different interpretations. Some say if the ends point down, the luck will "run out." In Rutland the ends pointing up meant the devil could sit in the hollow, so there the ends must point down. Some say the shape mirrors the phases of the moon, and the ends should point down to correspond to the waxing moon, which is more propitious than the waning moon. (Other folklore says planting should be done at the new moon, so the crops begin to grow as the moon "grows.")

Although Simon Magus in the Bible was a negative figure, and there are plenty of Biblical warnings against magic, that did not prevent the Christian Middle Ages from exploring magic and trying to turn it to their uses. We will look more closely at Medieval Magic tomorrow.

Amber, Medical and Mystical

Besides being attractive and easily carved into jewelry, amber was considered special in many ways. Its special attributes were first described by Pliny. Pliny did not follow Ovid's idea that amber was the hardened tears of a Greek goddess; he figured out it was likely tree sap:

Amber is produced from a marrow discharged by trees belonging to the pine genus,... It is a liquid at first, which issues forth in considerable quantities, and is gradually hardened [...] Our forefathers, too, were of opinion that it is the juice of a tree, and for this reason gave it the name of succinum, and one great proof that it is the produce of a tree of the pine genus, is the fact that it emits a pine-like smell when rubbed, and that it burns, when ignited, with the odor and appearance of torch-pine wood. [Natural History. Book 37.XI]

That did not mean, however, that he did not make note of its supposed special properties:

... Amber, indeed, is supposed to be a prophylactic against tonsillitis and other affections of the pharynx, for the water near the Alps has properties that harm the human throat in various ways.

Pliny also noted that "It is of benefit to babies when it is attached to them as an amulet." Amber was commonly used as magical amulets or talismans, either carved into a significant shape, or inscribed with a phrase that provided protection. The one shown here of a mother and child might have been designed to promote the health and welfare of both.

Another quality was noted in an article on the Getty website. "Amber could also symbolize constancy. Amber necklaces were gifts for brides, mortal and immortal, as the ancient sources tell us." [link] This is interesting because amber, unlike other precious and semiprecious materials, starts out with a luster from polishing that is very attractive but is anything but constant. Amber loses its luster and translucency over time, and amber items carved centuries ago are nowhere near as attractive to look at as they were at the time of creation.

Despite Pliny, the Middle Ages still looked to a link between amber and the sun, due to its golden color (when new). The most prominent belief was that amber was protection against negative influences, warding off evil spirits and bringing good luck.

The type of magic mentioned in the previous paragraph—intended to ward off evil spirits or other harmful influences—is called apotropaic magic, and has been very popular throughout history. Let's take a look at some examples tomorrow.

Amber

Amber has been a material of desire since antiquity. We know now that it is 40 million-year-old fossilized tree sap, but in ancient times there was no known origin.

It often was found washed up on the shore of the Baltic Sea and other bodies of water. This prompted Ovid in the 1st century CE to attribute it to the tears of a minor sea goddess, Clymene, the mother (by Helios, the sun god) of Phaethon, who begged Helios to let him drive the chariot of the sun, lost control, and was killed by a thunderbolt from Zeus to prevent disaster. Phaethon's mother and sisters were so devastated by their loss that they turned into poplar trees. Amber was the remains of their tears before they transformed. In fact, the Greek word for amber was electrum, derived from the Greek word for the sun.

Other myths to explain it were the death of Meleager, whose mother's tears turned to amber; solidified sunlight; material originating in a temple in Ethiopia; from a river in India; solidified urine of the male lynx (its dark color resembled amber). Aristotle called it "hardened resin," but others looked for more interesting origins.

The Roman writer Pliny the Elder, while including all materials and precious stones in his Natural History, noticed that burning amber produced a pine scent, and that it was observed to sometimes have insects trapped inside. Concluding that the insects got into it while amber was in a liquid state, he concluded that it was the sap of the pine tree. He also felt that the sap became amber because of the interaction of the sea, since it was found on shores.

After the 3rd century CE, Roman interest in amber seemed to wane, but in the Medieval Era its popularity was revived by the Armenians, who made it into jewelry and kept a healthy trade with other areas through the Amber Road.

Its popularity as jewelry or art came because it was relatively easy to carve and shape. Above you can see an Anglo-Saxon amber necklace from a female burial at Linton Heath in Cambridgeshire dated 450-550 CE. But its popularity went beyond merely being attractive. It was considered to have medicinal and even mystical properties. I'll tell you about them tomorrow.

The Amber Road

Yesterday mentioned Wulfstan of Hedeby stopping at a place along the Amber Road. The Amber Road was a trade route (part of it shown here) that connected Mediterranean countries with the Baltic Sea, where amber was relatively plentiful.

Sometimes called "gold of the north," amber was known to be used a millennium prior to the Common Era by the Etruscans. At the end of that time and the beginning of the Common Era the Celts built a large trade industry with amber and had routes to the Roman Empire. In the first few centuries CE it was considered a symbol of the Roman Empire's growing power.

Using the "path of least resistance," it usually went along river valleys. The main route went from (what is now) Vienna through, Wrocław, Kalis (Kalisia), Konin (Setidava), and eventually to Gdańsk. Kaliningrad, originally founded during a Crusade to convert the Prussians, has a massive amber mine you can visit today. When Rome conquered the areas of the central Danube, the speed of transport really took off as Roman merchants found it easier to travel northward to where they could purchase or barter for the material.

Like any important trade route (such as the Silk Road), the Amber Road led to the development of towns along its path, which meant more merchants of various goods, purveyors of food and drink, and owners/builders of inns that thrived along the route. Bags of amber, furs (mainly beaver), leather and wood went south, while metalwork such as belt buckles and clasps along with fabrics went north.

What was the allure of amber? It was made into jewelry, of course, but it had other uses according to friend-of-the-blog Pliny the Elder. I'll share his thoughts next time.