Malcolm III of Scotland

Almost exactly a decade ago I posted "The Real Macbeth" about how he killed Duncan I of Scotland. Well, let's talk about Duncan's son, who has been mentioned many times in the past several posts because of his links to English royals.

Malcolm's mother is a mystery. John of Fordun, a Scottish chronicler from a few centuries after Malcolm, says she was a blood relative of Earl Siward, Earl of Northumbria, but this was probably a late attempt to tie Scottish royalty closer to possessions in England (but see below). An even later story suggests she was the daughter of a commoner and Malcolm was born out of wedlock.

Where was Malcolm when Duncan was killed by Macbeth? Malcolm was only about nine years old, but chieftains could have supported him. Tradition says that Duncan had sent his sons (besides Malcolm there was Donald and Máel Muire*) away for their safety; Fordun says Malcolm was sent to England to the court of Edward the Confessor.

Fordun writes that in 1054, Earl Siward of Northumbria invaded Scotland with the intent to install one Máel Coluim, son of the king of the Cumbrians, on the throne of Scotland. This Máel Coluim was identified as Malcolm III Canmore. William of Malmesbury agrees with this event, and says that Macbeth was killed by Siward. The problem with this is that Siward died two years before Macbeth. More recent scholars believe that Siward's Máel Coluim was a later Malcolm.

Other chroniclers of the time state that Macbeth was killed by Malcolm on 15 August 1057, but Macbeth was succeeded by his son Lulach (actually his step-son, born to his wife Gruoch—yes, "Lady Macbeth" did have her own name—from her first marriage), who was crowned in September. Lulach (whose nickname was Tairbith "The Unfortunate") was then killed by Malcolm in April 1058, who then became king shortly after.

It was common for Gaelic rulers to start their reigns with a show of strength by mounting an invasion somewhere. Malcolm's supposed close connection with England did not stop him from plundering Lindisfarne in 1061. This was far enough from the seat of English monarchy that it probably did not draw much attention. The local alderman of Northumbria at the time was Tostig Godwinson, but not only was he away on pilgrimage to Rome for recent offenses, but also he didn't care much for his people anyway.

Malcolm actually offered Tostig asylum at a time when Tostig needed a safe place. That, and other ties to English royalty, will be the subject for tomorrow.

*not this Máel Muire, however.

Harald Hardrada and Tostig

While William in Normandy was preparing to take over England after the death of Edward the Confessor and the coronation of Harold Godwinson, King Harald III "Hardrada" of Norway decided to attack England himself. Harald had a dream of re-creating Cnut's North Sea Empire, but Denmark resisted Harald's frequent raids on the Danish coast. He had all but given up this dream when a new player entered the scene: Tostig Godwinson.

That's Tostig in the illustration, brawling with his brother Harold at Edward's court. Their sibling rivalry and violent nature didn't end when they got older. Tostig became the Earl of Northumbria in 1055 at the death of Earl Siward. Northumbria was home to Anglo-Saxons and settlers from Danish invasions. He was not well-liked by either group because of his heavy-handed manner. Also, he was from the south, and the cultures of north and south were very different and led to mistrust. Moreover, King Malcolm III "Canmore" of the Scots to the north was a friend of Tostig, and he was negligent in the face of Scots raids over the border. All these points plus heavy taxation to pay for mercenaries when he needed soldiers (because the locals did not readily volunteer when he made the call) led to a general uprising.

Yorkshire rose up against him and declared him outlaw. Edward was still king, and sent Tostig's brother Harold (by then Edward's right-hand man) to negotiate with the rebels. Harold realized the situation was too untenable for Tostig to remain in power. Harold returned to Edward and advised him to agree to the rebels' demands and depose Tostig. Having Tostig remain the country would not be advisable, so he was exiled.

Tostig and his family and a few loyal retainers went to Baldwin V of Flanders, who gave him some ships and men for support. He then went to Normandy, but William wanted nothing to do with him. After Edward's death in January 1066, Tostig sailed to the Isle of Wight, taking money and provisions and trying to establish a base from which he could get back into the country, but he sailed away when Harold (now king) sent troops down there. Tostig then sailed northward to raise Norfolk and Lincolnshire but was defeated decisively by the earls Morcar and Edwin. His supporters abandoned him, and he went to Scotland to spend the summer with King Malcolm.

At some point he contacted Harald Hardrada, either by message or by sailing to Norway, and invited Harald to take the throne of England. Their first foray in September led to the Battle of Fulford, in which Tostig wanted revenge against Edwin and Morcar. Let's take a look tomorrow at how that went.

Edward and Emma

In 1037, Harold Harefoot was declared king in England. The next year he expelled Emma of Normandy, mother of his half-brother Harthacnut who was more loyal to Harthacnut (off consolidating power in Denmark) than to Harold. Emma went to Bruges in Flanders and summoned her step-son Edward, who had his own claim to the throne as the son of Æthelred the Unready, Emma's first husband who was defeated by Harthacnut's father and Emma's second husband, Cnut. Edward wanted no part of helping the person who stood in the way of Edward assuming his father's throne.

In 1040, Harthacnut was planning an invasion to take back the throne from his half brother, but Harold conveniently died, allowing Harthacnut (and Emma) to sail into England without opposition. One year later, however, Harthacnut invited Edward to England. Harthacnut was only in his twenties, but had not been well for a long time—tuberculosis has been suggested as the cause—and he may have felt he did not have long to live.

With no wife or children, Harthacnut wanted to name a successor, and he chose Edward (se above observing Christ in the Eucharist). According to the Encomium Emmae Reginae ("Encomium [Praise] of Queen Emma"), she was something of a co-ruler with Edward and the ailing Harthacnut.

On 8 June 1042, Harthacnut attended a wedding. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle reports:

Harthacnut died as he stood at his drink, and he suddenly fell to the earth with an awful convulsion; and those who were close by took hold of him, and he spoke no word afterwards.

Edward was supported by Godwin, Earl of Wessex (who had earlier been hostile to Edward's cause, capturing and blinding Edward's brother and causing his death). Edward was crowned on Easter Sunday, 3 April 1043. One of his first acts was to deprive his mother of all her property (which was extensive).

Confiscating her property was good for Edward, but he was still less powerful in real terms than his three leading earls: Godwin of Wessex, Leofric of Mercia, Siward of Northumbria. Also, Edward was a return of the throne to an English ruler, whereas the past several years had seen power growing in the hands of Danes. Leofric's family had served Æthelred, but Godwin had been loyal to Cnut (and was married to Cnut's sister-in-law), and Siward was probably Danish.

Dealing with his earls and increasing his own authority was crucial to his reign. We'll talk next time about some of the steps he took, some of them ruthless.

Leofric

Remember Edward the Confessor? He may have had good qualities, but getting along with family was not one of them. Not only was he harsh to his mother, he quarreled frequently with his father-in-law, Godwin, who happened to be one of the most powerful men in England. One of the quarrels between the two was "mediated" by Leofric, Earl of Mercia (d.1057).

King Cnut (c.985-1035) divided England into four provinces (East Anglia, Mercia, Northumbria, and Wessex) and gave each to an earl. The earldom of Mercia was given to Leofric after its original earl,  Eadric Streona, died in 1017 (within months of Cnut's division). The position meant Leofric was second in power to Godwin of Wessex.

When Cnut died, Leofric supported as his successor Harold Harefoot over Harthacnut. Harold was the son of Cnut's first wife, Ælfgifu, and Leofric may have been related to her. Harold became king, but when he died in 1040 and Harthacnut ascended the throne, Leofric must have felt a little awkward. Fortunately for Leofric, Harthacnut died in 1042, and his half-brother Edward the Confessor took the throne.

When Edward and Godwin quarreled in 1051, Leofric brought an army, along with Earl Siward of Northumbria, and joined Edward's troops in facing Godwin's forces. Leofric counseled that they should settle the conflict peacefully rather than risk destroying the fighting power of England. The result was Godwin's (brief) exile.

Life was good for Leofric, and his son Ælfgar replaced Godwin as Earl of Wessex; but Godwin and Edward were reconciled a year later, and Ælfgar had the humiliation of losing his earldom. In 1053, when Godwin died, Ælfgar got the position back again. Ælfgar seemed to follow in the footsteps of his predecessor, not his father, and was exiled in 1055, whereupon he raised a fleet and tried to attack England. But that's a different story.

Talk about a different story: I've left out one tidbit about Leofric—the one everyone knows, although they don't know they know it. Leofric and his wife, Godgifu (Anglo-Saxon for "god gift"), were very devout people. They endowed a Benedictine monastery in Coventry, and later records credit them with supporting monasteries at Chester, Evesham, Leominster and Much Wenlock. Some later writers claim she was the primary influence for her husband's generosity. In fact, there is a story (without evidence) that she was so opposed to the oppressive taxation imposed by her husband on his tenants, that she was willing to go through an 11th century version of "truth or dare." What we know of her husband suggests that not only would he not have been so cruel to his tenants, but neither would he force his pretty young wife to shame herself by riding naked through the streets of Coventry. Still, the story won't go away, although Godgifu probably wouldn't recognize either the telling or the Latinized version of her name, Godiva.