Early Metal Working

The blacksmith or metalworker in the Middle Ages was a highly respected craftsman. The results of the blacksmith's skill were so important to society that many pantheons had a god of blacksmithing, or at least a legendary figure, such as Hephaestus among the Greeks, Goibhniu in the Tuatha Dé Danaan cycle, or Govannon in the Welsh Mabinogion. The Anglo-Saxons had the legendary Wayland Smith. Even the Bible mentions Tubal-Cain in the book of Genesis as the first blacksmith.

Metalworkers originally worked with gold, silver, and copper, which are all found in their native states as pure metals. They are also fairly malleable, and so could be shipped and hammered relatively easily into whatever was wanted—mostly small decorative objects like jewelry. Phoenician trade brought together tin from Cornwall and copper from Cyprus and the discovery that a mixture produced a stronger metal with a lower melting point we call bronze, making it easier to shape into larger objects that would be stronger, such as a weapon.

The so-called Iron Age came about around 1500BCE, when the Hittites in the Middle East began working with iron, much of which was embedded in other ores. (Many early peoples first used iron found in meteor deposits, where the iron was mixed with up to 40% nickel.) The armor and weapons of The Iliad are bronze, but Homer refers to arrowheads as iron. At the time of its composition (or its later revision), iron was known, but was not being easily worked into larger items.

One difficulty with iron compared to previous metals is that its melting point is very high (2800°F), and so the heat produced by the blacksmith could soften it so that it could be hammered and shaped, turning it into a liquid to pour into a mold was not within the power of most forges. If a village had a blacksmith, it likely only had one. On the other hand, a village without a blacksmith was in a sad state. Smithing was a necessary craft for the functioning of the Middle Ages. It was one of the seven essential Artes mechanicae (to parallel the seven Liberal Arts).

Tomorrow we'll look at the medieval blacksmith in more detail, and the men and women who were employed in this important trade.

Paganism and Christianity, Part 4

Although Christianity was replacing paganism all over Europe, pagan cultural influences inevitably lingered, and we can see this everywhere. The days of the week, and even the idea of a seven-day week, did not originate with Christians or the Bible. Pagan Romans had a seven-day week, and the modern English names come from Anglo-Saxon pagans and their Norse deities:

• Sunday = Sun-day
• Monday = Moon day
• Tuesday = Tyr's day (god of war)
• Wednesday = Woden's day (Odin, father of gods)
• Thursday = Thor's day (thunder god)
• Friday = Frigge's day (goddess of love)

Many pagan figures were turned into Christian saints because their stories were compelling. The saints Barlaam and Josaphat were decreed to be early saints, although they are from a much older Buddhist story. Some scholars doubt the historicity of St. Brigid of Kildare, suggesting that she was a re-purposing of the Celtic goddess Brigid, a member of the Tuatha.

Although the Bible does not mention the word or idea of a halo, Christian art puts it on the heads of religious figures as a standard indication of divinity. It is a much earlier image, however, appearing with Buddha, with Krishna, and the Egyptian sun-god, Ra.

The image of the Good Shepherd seems to come from the Bible, and was painted on Christian and Jewish tombs in the Roman catacombs, but it was previously used for pagan tombs as well. Jesus may be depicted as an adult with a beard, but the earliest Good Shepherd motif is of a beardless youth wearing Roman clothing from before the Common Era.

Other images in Jewish and Christian art that are predated by pagan use are found in the catacombs: woman praying with upright hands (so-called Orant figures), Winged Victories and cupids are seen throughout the catacombs, figures eating grapes, seven steps leading to a tomb, pairs of peacocks, scrolls—are all parts of pagan art that were adapted to Christian symbolism.

C.S.Lewis, after converting to Roman Catholicism, was happy to explain these borrowings as important parallels:

preparatio evangelica, a divine hinting in poetic and ritual form at the same central truth which was later focused on and (so to speak) historicized in the Incarnation... [from the essay "Myth Became Fact and Religion without Dogma"]

Of course the more deliberate adaptation of pagan-to-Christian culture is when Pope Gregory sent Augustine to convert Britain, telling him to appropriate their holy places and customs, or when St. Boniface cut down a sacred oak and used the timber to build a church. Gregory's re-defining certain words tells a similar story.

The Christianization of Europe kept advancing, but like the Renaissance it did not happen all at once. There was a country on the Baltic Sea that is considered the last country to become officially Christian. Curiously, its capital city of Vilnius had such a large and thriving Jewish population that it was called Yerushalayim D'Lita (the "Jerusalem of Lithuania"). Tomorrow we talk about (not for the first time) Lithuania.

The Spanish Come to Ireland

The 9th century Historia Brittonum (History of the Britons) tells of three invasions of Ireland from the Iberian Peninsula. The Partholón die of plague, the Nemedians return to Iberia, but the Milesians stay and become the Irish people. The Milesians are called that because they descend from a miles Hispaniae, sometimes called Miled. The settlers came with 30 ships, each of which held 30 wives.

According to the Lebor Gabála Érenn (The Book of the Taking of Ireland), written by Christians and incorporating Irish mythology, Noah's son Japheth had a descendant who was a Scythian king named Fénius Fairad, who was one of 72 chieftains who built the Tower of Babel. His son wed the daughter of an Egyptian pharaoh. Their son, Goidel Glas, invents the Gaelic language after the confusion in languages caused by Babel.

Goidel's descendants leave Egypt for Scythia, then leave Scythia and wander for 440 years, eventually reaching Iberia/Hispania. One of the settlers, Íth, builds a tower there so tall that he spots the island of Ireland. Íth sails there, meeting three kings/gods of the Tuatha Dé Danann. Íth is killed, his people return to Iberia; then the sons of Íth's brother, Mil, lead an invasion force for revenge.

Landing in Ireland, they meet three queens/goddesses of the Tuatha, one of whom, Ériu, prophecies good fortune for them if they name the Ireland after her (this is where we get the name Eire). The Milesians and the Tuatha meet and agree to a three-day truce, during which the Milesians must take to their ships and wait off shore. The Tuatha create a storm that prevents the ships from landing again, but a Milesian, Amergin, knows a magical verse that calms the storm. The ships return, and the agreement is made with the Tuatha that the Gaels will live above ground, and the Tuatha must live below ground.

Why the link to Iberia/Hispania, Spain? One reason might be the coincidental similarity between the names Iberia/Hiberia and Hibernia, as well as the names Galicia and Gael. Isidore of Seville made many erroneous (but widely believed) concordances based on words and his take on history. Isidore also described Iberia as the "mother[land] of the races" (we don't know why). Historians Orosius and Tacitus thought Ireland was situated between Iberia and Britain, and one modern scholar (read his essay "Did the Irish Come from Spain?" here) sees this as a reason to think that Irish arrivals would have started from Spain. 

In truth, DNA analysis shows close relations between modern Irish and northern Iberians. Hmm.

Regarding Isidore of Seville, whose works were considered the encyclopediae of his time and generations after: he has been mentioned, but has never been the subject of a post. I'll fix that tomorrow.

The Tuatha Dé Danann

The Tuatha Dé Danann, or "the folk of the goddess Danu," are a cornerstone of early Irish literature and mythology. Arriving from the north on dark clouds, they demand half of Ireland from the current inhabitants, the Fir Bolg, who refuse and are slaughtered. The Tuatha, in turn, are defeated years later when the Milesians arrive in Ireland. The result is that Ireland is shared 50-50: the Milesians (ancestors of the Gaels) get the aboveground Ireland, and the Tuatha have to live below the surface, eventually become the sidhe of Irish folklore. They are described as gods and goddesses, kings and queens, druids and bards, warriors and healers, all with supernatural powers. They are also the possessors of the Four Treasures of Ireland.

They are sometimes described as descendants of Nemed; the Nemedians were an earlier group of settlers who were driven out by the Fomorians. Some of the Nemedians fled to Greece, returning years later as the Fir Bolg. Some fled north, and somehow became the Tuatha. Therefore, many of the Irish "Invasions" are groups fighting other groups who were descendants of a common ancestor.

Attempts to determine their origin/meaning linguistically have led to many theories, none of them universally agreed upon. The phrase Tuath Dé meaning "tribe of god(s)" was used by Irish monks to refer to the Israelites. The word tuatha was commonly used for the various kingdoms/tribes under different chieftains. Adding Danann was done by Irish monks recording "history" to distinguish the Israelites from the Tuatha of legend. Tuatha Dé Danann, however, prompts the question "Who was Danu?"

Skipping over the initial consonant, scholars leap to Anu, called "mother of the Irish gods" by the 10th century king (and bishop) of Munster, Cormac Mac Cuilennáin. Others point to Danu, a goddess of Hindu mythology, and wonder if this shared name is "simply" an Indo-European parallel.

Danu may be a blend of the goddess Anann and the word dán, "skill" or "craft": maybe the magical powers attributed to the Tuatha in history come from their introductions of smithing, weaving, tanning, brewing, etc. After all, the Tuatha are sometimes referred to as Eladan, "children of art."

Some seeking to explain the name look to proto-Celtic don meaning "earth," which compares to the Old Irish doman, "earth." A 7th century bishop and biographer of St. Patrick, Tírechán, describes the sidhe as dei terreni, "earthly gods."

Whatever their origin, their stories are foundational to Irish mythology. It is one of their goddesses, Ériu, whose name is the origin of the modern name Éire. Eventually, however, medieval historians had to eliminate them from the scene to explain their absence, and the Milesians were the instrument of their elimination.

Who were the Milesians, the ancestors of the Gaels? They were a little more grounded in history—a little—and we'll look at their "Spanish" origin tomorrow.

The Four Treasures of Ireland

In early Irish literature, there are three texts that each refer to four special objects. These are the Four Treasures of Ireland, sometimes called the Four Treasures of the Tuatha Dé Danann because they were brought to Ireland when the Tuatha—according to the Lebor Gabála Érenn or the Book of the Taking of Ireland, also known as The Book of Invasions—came from the north to Ireland on dark clouds.

The legend says they came from four cities, and from each they brought a treasure.

From the city of Falias they brought the Stone of Fál, that would cry out when the rightful king of Ireland sat on it. It was on the Hill of Tara, and mentioned here.

From Gorias came the Spear of Lugh. The man who wielded it never lost, nor did the army of the wielder. Lugh was a mythological figure associated with war and the arts. The harvest festival Lughnasadh on 1 August is named for him.

The Sword of Light from the city Findias was another weapon. Once drawn from its sheath against a foe, that foe could not win. It belonged to Nuada (literally "champion"), the first king of the Tuatha, one of whose significant stories is the loss of an arm in battle that gets replaced with one of silver.

The final treasure was the Cauldron of Dagda from Murias. Dagda was a king, a druid, and a father-figure. The Cauldron never ran out of food. No one ever left unsatisfied after eating from the cauldron. It is also said that paired with it was a ladle that was so big it took two men to lift it. (He also owned a harp that could influence the listerner's emotions and change the seasons, but that's not enough to be a treasure, I guess.)

The Four Treasures (sometimes called the Four Jewels) appear in the stories of battles and adventures involving the Tuatha, who eventually disappear from the scene with the arrival of the Milesians, going underground and becoming the supernatural entities that provide much folklore.

Who were the Tuatha? Their presence in literature is so pervasive that they deserve some attention. It would be impossible to "tell their story" in the confines of a short post on a daily blog, but we can at least take a stab at their literary origin. See you next time.

The Six Invasions of Ireland

The Lebor Gabála Érenn or the Book of the Taking of Ireland, also known as The Book of Invasions, is a compilation of Christian and Irish myths in poetry and prose, telling the history of Ireland. Starting with the Biblical Flood and ending in the Middle Ages, it describes six invasions or colonizations of Ireland.

The first wave is led by Cessair, a daughter of Noah, who sails westward on a journey that ends in Ireland with 50 women and only three men. Each of the men takes 16 wives, but when two of the men perish leaving only Fintan Mac Bóchra, he flees from the "responsibility" and is turned into a hawk. This hawk lives 5,500 years, advising the kings of Ireland until the 5th century and the time of Finn Mac Cumhaill.

Three centuries after Cessair, another descendant of Noah named Partholón arrives in Ireland with followers. Ireland is wild, with only one open plain and three lakes. They clear more plains, and more lakes appear from the ground. They go about introducing cattle, farming, brewing, etc. They encounter the Fomorians (pictured above in a 1912 painting by John Duncan), monstrous and hostile supernatural beings, and defeat them. Partholón's people, however, numbering 5000 men and 4000 women, all die from a plague within a week. Ireland is left uninhabited, until...

A Scythian named Nemed leads a group of settlers to Ireland. They suffer from plague as well, and also encounter the Fomorians. Losing to the Fomorians, Nemed's people must give two-thirds of their children and wheat and milk to their enemies each Samhain. The Nemedians eventually rise up against the Fomorians, but only 30 survive and are scattered, some going east to become the ancestors of all Britons, some going to Greece, some going north.

The fourth "invasion" is 200 years later, when the descendants of the Nemedians who went to Greece return. This is around the time of the Israelite's Exodus from Egypt. They are called the Fir Bolg, the "men of bags," because while in Greece they were enslaved and made to haul bags of soil and clay. They divide Ireland into five areas ruled by five chieftains.

(An oddly-specific) 37 years later, the fifth wave arrives on dark clouds of fog. They are the Tuatha Dé Danann, bringing the Four Treasures of Ireland (one of which is the Stone of Destiny). They may be descended from the Nemedians who went north. They possess powerful magic, and they demand half of Ireland from the Fir Bolg, who refuse and are slaughtered.

Finally, the Milesians arrive. Their battle with the Tuatha results in an agreement to share the island 50-50: the Milesians get the part above ground, and Tuatha live below the surface. The Milesians are the ancestors of the Gaels. The Tuatha become the Otherworld inhabitants who occasionally encounter humans and exhibit magical powers.

Although humans become the chief peoples of Ireland, the Tuatha part of the story explains the presence of supernatural elements, such as the Four Treasures. What exactly were the Four Treasures and their significance? For that you'll have to come back tomorrow.