Medieval Sociology

Sociology, the study of the development, structure, and functioning of human society, is probably best done when the sociologist can observe the society in question. Studying societies from centuries ago relies on written records—which are not always accurate or objective—and on assumptions. Different historians and sociologists, therefore, described the social and political structure of the Middle Ages from their own points of view.

Karl Marx, for instance, considered the Middle Ages significant as a step in social evolution: the social relations stablished through the feudal system determined modes of production. Max Weber (1864 - 1920, German sociologist), on the other hand, saw the feudal relationship to a lord as less important than the rise of the "occidental city" which developed in the West.

[Weber] saw in the history of medieval European cities the rise of a unique form of "non-legitimate domination" that successfully challenged the existing forms of legitimate domination [such as lords and kings—Tim] that had prevailed until then in the Medieval world. This new domination was based on the great economic and military power wielded by the organised community of city-dwellers ("citizens"). [The Max Weber dictionary: key words and central concepts]

(Much of sociology, after all, refers to "in-groups" and "out-groups." It may be of interest while discussing the rise of cities to note the difference between the terms citizen and denizen. The former comes into use in c.1275-1325 and refers to a native of a nation or city. The latter does not appear until c.1425-1475 and refers to a non-native inhabitant, suggesting a distinction being made in city-dwellers to those who "belonged" and those who did not.)

A 1995 article points out that these two opinions "marked simultaneously the begin­ning and the end of sociological inquiries into medieval culture, since sociologists have shown little interest ever since." [link] The author claims the period between 500 CE and 1500 CE was remarkable for many changes, not least of which was the shift from a "gift and barter" system to a profit-based economy that led to "the splendid display of wealth and powering the urban centers of trade." Also, that the rule in cities was far more stable than the previous rule by what Weber called "legitimate" systems.

The article outlines one of the issues with sociological study of the Middle Ages being that the chief source of records has a clerical bias, and offers no information on the everyday lives of ordinary men and women. The author uses the Waldensians to illustrate. The Waldensian movement was a lay religious movement of those aforementioned ordinary men and woman. What we learn about them, however, comes from clerical references that focus on the leaders of the movement, not the rank and file, and from to their "peculiarities," and from the records of the Inquisition that are designed to underscore practices considered vulgar and heretical.

The sociological study of the Middle Ages is fraught with error caused by assumptions due to the enormous gaps in information and understanding. This can also offer the would-be scholar a chance to treat it as clay to be molded according to his or her whims and interests, which can be tempting, but ultimately must be viewed with a critical eye.

I producing this post, I realized that I have hardly explained the Waldensians, a widespread lay religious movement that lasted centuries after its founding. I shall rectify this omission next time.

Ibn Khaldun

Ibn Khaldun (alias Abū Zayd ‘Abd ar-Raḥmān ibn Muḥammad ibn Khaldūn al-Ḥaḍramī) was born 27 May 1332 in Tunis. He was a Muslim Arab from a well-to-do family whose later works, both autobiographical and historical, provide modern scholars with some of the best available information on his time and the Ottoman Empire. When he was 17 years old, his parents both died from the Black Death. They had enabled him, however, to study with some of the finest teachers available, which helped determine the course of his life.

Part of that life was spent in government service, as described in this post from a few months ago. He wrote about the world around him, giving us insight into the history of his part of the world here.

His most enduring contribution to scholarship may have been the Muqaddimah, (Arabic "Prologue"). In it we find the first literature on sociology. He introduces the concept of social asabiyyah, (Arabic "tribalism" or "social cohesion" or "nationalism"); asabiyyah is either rising or falling, and societies go through these cycles. He points out that dynasties usually have the seeds of their own downfall, becoming complacent in their power and authority, allowing a peripheral asabiyyah unit to eventually take over. (A good example of this is how the "Mayors of the Palace" grew more powerful than their bosses, the Merovingian kings, and became the Carolingian dynasty.)

He also wrote about the relationship population growth and economic growth:

When civilization [population] increases, the available labor again increases. In turn, luxury again increases in correspondence with the increasing profit, and the customs and needs of luxury increase. Crafts are created to obtain luxury products. The value realized from them increases, and, as a result, profits are again multiplied in the town. Production there is thriving even more than before. And so it goes with the second and third increase. All the additional labor serves luxury and wealth, in contrast to the original labor that served the necessity of life. [source]

He also explained the basis of supply and demand:

The inhabitants of a city have more food than they need. Consequently, the price of food is low, as a rule, except when misfortunes occur due to celestial conditions that may affect [the supply of] food. [source]

Supply-side economics, the idea that lower taxes will lead to economic growth, also shows up in his theories:

It should be known that at the beginning of the dynasty, taxation yields a large revenue from small assessments. At the end of the dynasty, taxation yields a small revenue from large assessments. [Laffer Associates (November 11, 2003)]

This is known in modern times as the Laffer Curve, but even Arthur Laffer gives credit to Ibn Khaldun!

He spent much of his later life teaching. In 1384, the Egyptian sultan named him the Grand qadi (judge of Sharaia law) in Western Africa. Sadly, in that same year his wife and children died when their ship sank off Alexandria. His final years were spent writing his autobiography and teaching in Cairo. He died 17 March 1406.

All this talk of sociology brings up the question: what do sociologists think of the Middle Ages? How do they analyze cultural trends and practices centuries removed from being able to observe medieval society? There are different approaches, which I'll talk about next.