Crescentius the Younger

After Otto III's coronation, he and Pope Gregory V (his cousin Bruno) summoned all the Roman nobility who had created such difficulties for the previous pope, John XV. While Otto declared exile for them, Pope Gregory requested mercy. The leader of these Romans, who had styled himself Patrician, was Crescentius II. Instead of banishment, Crescentius was allowed to remain in Rome.

Crescentius was not chastened. A few months after Otto had returned to Germany, Crescentius started trouble. Romans did not like their new German pope, or the foreigners that had been placed in administrative positions in Rome by the emperor. The resulting rebellion caused Gregory to flee to Pavia.

In Pavia, Gregory called a synod and declared Crescentius an excommunicate. Crescentius did not care. He chose the Bishop of Piacenza Johannes Philagathos, who had recently returned from Constantinople, to be pope. Johannes became the antipope John XVI.

Otto marched back to Rome in February 998 with Gregory. The antipope fled, but was soon caught. He was sent to the monastery of Fulda in Germany, but only after his nose and ears were cut off and his eyes and tongue ripped out. He died in 1001.

Crescentius barricaded himself in the Castel Sant'Angelo (pictured above) where he was safe until the castle was taken in April. After execution, his corpse was hanged on one of the hills northwest of Rome, the Monte Mario.

Yesterday's post shared a theory that Otto's death was caused by Crescentius' widow, Stephania. A 1906 historical work has this passage:

Stephania, his widow, concealing her affliction and her resentment for the insults to which she had been exposed, secretly resolved to revenge her husband and herself. On the return of Otho from a pilgrimage to Mount Gargano, which, perhaps, a feeling of remorse had induced him to undertake, she found means to be introduced to him, and to gain his confidence; and a poison administered by her was soon afterwards the cause of his painful death. [Sismondi, History of the Italian Republics, vol. i]

Why was Crescentius so determined to ignore the will of the emperor and try to rule Rome? Turns out it was a family trait. I'll explain next time.

Otto III's Coronation

The latest scion of the Crescentius family was lording it over Rome and dominating the pope, John XV, who had been forced to flee Rome. Otto III needed a pope to confirm him as Holy Roman Emperor, and he was just recently old enough to step out of the regency period overseen by his mother and grandmother.

He assembled an army to march toward Rome. Stopping in Verona he formed a good relationship with the future Doge of Venice (also named Otto), which helped make relations with Venice better than they had been under Otto's father. Stopping in Pavia at Easter 996, he was formally declared King of Italy and crowned with the Iron Crown of Lombardy.

Before he reached Rome, Crescentius decided he should make peace with the about-to-be-crowned emperor. Pope John XV died before Otto reached Rome. Otto nominated his chaplain, Bruno of Carinthia, who happened to be Otto's cousin (Otto I was the grandfather of both men). He sent Bruno to Rome (Otto was still in Ravenna) with Archbishop Willigis. Crescentius, fearing potential retribution, locked himself away in the Tomb of Hadrian, also known as the Castel Sant'Angelo.

Bruno was confirmed and took the papal regnal name of Gregory V. He crowned Otto as Holy Roman Emperor on 21 May 996 at St. Peter's Basilica (the crown itself shown above). Emperor and pope held a synod a few days later. The Roman nobles that had imprisoned John XV were summoned and banished for their actions, including Crescentius. The new pope, however, did not want to start his reign making enemies; he pleaded for mercy from the emperor. Many were pardoned, and Crescentius was allowed to live in Rome, but he was stripped of the self-given title Patrician of the Romans.

Otto then sent out to restore the glory of the Roman Empire, but he only had six years to do it before his death in January 1002 of a sudden fever while traveling to Rome again to quell unrest against his rule. Malaria was one theory about his illness. Another theory at the time was that the widow of Crescentius had seduced Otto and then poisoned him.

Crescentius? Why would there be hostility from his widow toward Otto? Crescentius was pardoned and lived out his life peacefully in Rome, right? If only that were true. Crescentius continued to cause trouble. I'll go into that tomorrow.

Otto III's Regency, Part 3

After the death of his mother, Holy Roman Empress Theophanu, the responsibility for the regency of Otto III (still only 11 years old) passed to his grandmother, Holy Roman Empress Adelaide. Each of these women had been heavily involved in her husband's administration and was quite capable of managing important affairs.

Adelaide helped govern during the 992 war between Bohemia and Poland, in which the Ottonian regime supported Poland.

Her regency lasted only a few years, since in 994 Otto turned 14. In September of that year he was granted the right to govern Germany without the need of a regent. A letter from Otto to his grandmother suggests that she was happy to give up the responsibility:

According to your wishes and desires, the divinity has conferred the rights of an empire on us with a happy outcome.

Otto now became King of Italy as well as King of Germany, but was not yet crowned Holy Roman Emperor. That was coming soon.

At this point, Adelaide was active in charity work, founding and restoring monasteries and churches. A nunnery she had founded in 991 was her final residence, retiring there when Otto no longer needed her at court. She died there on 16 December 999 and was buried in the abbey. Pope Urban II canonized her in 1097 for her service to the Church.

On his own now, Otto faced and put down a Slavic rebellion. He then had trouble in Italy; he mounted an expedition to support Pope John XIV (a Lombard who had been Otto's father's chancellor), but was being beset by a Roman faction who wanted their own Italian pope put in place. A leader of the Roman aristocracy, Crescentius II, was calling himself Patrician of the Romans and trying to rule the place. They imprisoned John XIV in the Tomb of Hadrian and put antipope Boniface VII in his place. (The clan of the Crescentii figured largely in papal positions for several generations.)

Pope John XIV died in his prison. When Boniface VII died, Pope John XV succeeded him, but Crescentius had too much influence over him to satisfy Otto. John XV actually fled Rome to get away from Crescentius. Otto's goal was to restore proper order as well as the pope. This would be the greatest challenge of his reign, and I'll tell you about it tomorrow.

Otto III's Regency, Part 2

 

We are continuing from here, after a detour through the Great Gandersheim Conflict.

Otto was only a few years old in 983 when he became King of Germany upon his father's death, so his mother was named regent (after a conflict with Henry the Quarrelsome). Because Otto's father was also Holy Roman Emperor and his mother, Theophanu, was Holy Roman Empress, she became regent until her death in 991.

The regency period was relatively peaceful. Theophanu had been heavily involved in administration alongside her husband, so she was ready to manage things for her son. One of her acts was to negotiate a treaty with the King of Sweden, Eric the Victorious. She set up diplomatic relations with Vladimir I of Kyiv, and with the Duke of Poland Mieszko I.

Because the Byzantine culture included a close working relationship between emperor and patriarch, she cultivated a relationship with the pope. She brought other parts of Byzantine culture: not only physical style in jewelry, furniture, and clothing, but also eating habits and legal procedures.

There were military actions under her regency. In 987 she went with the army to assist the Prince-Bishop Notker of Liège (he was a Benedictine monk who had been chaplain to Theophanu's father-in-law, Holy Roman Emperor Otto I and received a countship) against Odo I, Count of Blois.

Theophanu developed an illness in 988 that lingered until her death in 991. Her sarcophagus (seen here), is in the Church of St. Pantaleon in Cologne. The contemporary chronicler Thietmar of Cologne wrote of her:

Though she was of the weak sex she possessed moderation, trustworthiness, and good manners. In this way she protected with male vigilance the royal power for her son, friendly with all those who were honest, but with terrifying superiority against rebels.

Otto was still a child, and so the regency passed to the other family member who was also a Holy Roman Empress, his paternal grandmother, Adelaide of Italy. She would see him through adulthood, as we will see next time.

The Gandersheim Conflict, Part 2

The Archbishop of Mainz and the Bishop of Hildesheim each wanted jurisdiction over the wealthy Gandersheim Abbey. This conflict reached a peak of pettiness when the abbey was to be reconsecrated on 14 September 1000 after being rebuilt due to a fire years earlier.

Archbishop of Mainz Willigis had postponed the consecration by a week after Bishop of Hildesheim Bernward had already received an invitation. Willigis knew that Bernward would be tied up in other court matters a week later. When Bernward showed up on the 14th, thinking he was going to take part in the ceremony and yet finding no preparations made, he decided to perform a Mass anyway. He publicly preached against the acting abbess, Sophia (who favored Willigis), which caused a riot.

On the 21st, Willigis appeared for the consecration and made a point of Bernward's absence, calling it a breach of duty and demanding that he appear the next day or Willigis would consecrate the abbey alone. Bernard had already planned for this: he sent Bishop of Schleswig Ekkehard to take his place at Gandersheim, a solution supported by canon law. Although Bernward would have preferred being at Gandersheim himself, he was able to avoid giving Willigis the sole spotlight and the opportunity to criticize Bernard for his absence.

Willigis convened a synod at Gandersheim to deal with the rights of Gandersheim once and for all, but Bernward was already on his way to Rome to appeal to Pope Sylvester II and Emperor Otto III (Sophia's nephew). Bernward reached Rome on 4 January, A representative from Ekkehard with details of the incident at Gandersheim arrived on the 7th.

Although Willigis was an important member of the court from the time of Otto's father, Bernward had familiarity on his side: Bernward and Sylvester (Gerbert of Aurillac prior to becoming pope) were tutors to Otto III in his youth. A papal letter dated 13 January was sent to Willigis to demand he hand off the rights to Gandersheim to the bishops of Hildesheim.

Willigis and Sophia still opposed Bernward. Another synod in June held by a papal legate was disrupted when armed men loyal to Willigis prevented the reading aloud of the papal letter transferring rights. Willigis tried to invite Bernward to a meeting in August, but Bernward claimed (and perhaps was) ill and sent Ekkehard and the German historian Thangmar as his representatives. Willigis did not believe the story of illness. Otto called for another meeting in December, postponed until 6 January 1002 because of weather, and then cancelled when Otto died on 23 January.

Otto's successor was Henry II ("the Saint"), son of Henry the Quarrelsome who had caused much trouble years earlier for Otto and the kingdom. A man in his 30s who needed no regent and had his own mind, he called both bishops to a meeting in 1006 at which he declared the conflict over and gave Bernward the task to finally plan the consecration ceremony. During the ceremony, Henry (who attended) officially declared that Gandersheim Abbey was to be in the hands of the bishops of Hildesheim. Willigis was allowed to participate in the consecration.

Fifteen years later the conflict arose again, but I really want to get back to the regency of Otto III before we forget. We'll resume how things were going with Otto's mother and paternal grandmother. See you tomorrow.

The Gandersheim Conflict, Part 1

A significant controversy during the reign of Holy Roman Emperor Otto III while he was still under the regency of his mother, Theophanu, was the conflict over Gandersheim Abbey in 987. Gandersheim in Lower Saxony had been founded not long before but had been richly endowed with relics of Popes Anastasius I and Innocent I. It housed secular canonesses. Its original location put it under the jurisdiction of the bishops of Hildesheim.

The controversy arose when Sophia, a daughter of Otto II and therefore Otto III's aunt, wanted to become invested as a canoness there. Because she was from a royal family, she did not want the ceremony to be facilitated by the bishop of Hildesheim, Osdag. She preferred the Archbishop of Mainz, Willigis, who was also chancellor of Germany.

Willigis decided this was an opportunity to claim jurisdiction over Gandersheim for Mainz. Technically, the abbey had been founded in the territory of Hildesheim, but had moved to Gandersheim which was across the border and inside the archdiocese of Mainz.

Theophanu mediated between the two and the disagreement was settled by having both Willigis and Osdag perform the investiture of Sophia. But the issue was not over.

The young Otto III was being tutored by Bernward of Hildesheim. In 993, Bernward became Bishop Bernward of Hildesheim. Everyone seemed on friendly terms, but according to one historian, Thangmar, Sophia was not friendly to the bishops of Hildesheim, even when Bernward succeeded Osdag. She had her fellow canonesses treat him coldly when he visited the abbey. When Pope Sylvester II (who, as Gerbert of Aurillac had been Otto's other tutor) gave his old colleague Bernward authority over Gandersheim, Bernward was blocked from entering the abbey by soldiers who were organized by Sophia.

A fire in 973 had destroyed part of the abbey. It was supposed to be reconsecrated on 14 September 1000, and Sophia, acting in place of the seriously ill abbess, asked Archbishop Willigis to perform the ceremony. The date was set and announced, Bernward was invited, and on 14 September Bernward showed up, thinking he would reconsecrate the abbey. Willigis, however, had postponed the date until a week later when he knew Bernward would be otherwise occupied at court. Bernward, therefore, found no preparations ready for the ceremony.

Bernward celebrated a Mass there anyway and publicly blamed Sophia for not being able to consecrate the abbey. The Mass turned into a riot. One week later, he got his revenge on Willigis and the plan to exclude him. I'll tell you the rest next time.

Otto III's Regency, Part 1

Otto III (980 - 23 January 1002) became King of Germany at the age of three on the death of his father, Otto II. He was in line to be Holy Roman Emperor, but had to go through a regency period until he was older. He was able to claim the title King of Italy in April 996, and Holy Roman Emperor in May.

Otto's closest male relative after the death of his father was Henry the Quarrelsome (pictured here), who claimed the regency. Henry had tried to usurp Otto II's position and had been imprisoned for it, but was released upon Otto II's death. Against the objections of Otto III's mother, Theophanu, and Theophanu's mother-in-law, Adelaide of Italy, Archbishop of Cologne Warin granted Henry the regency. The two women had had their differences in the past (and probably in the present), but each was a Holy Roman Empress, and neither wanted to see someone else have control of the empire.

The women's concerns were well-founded. Henry ruled less on behalf of Otto and more (according to Gerbert of Aurillac) in a style of joint kingship. Henry took (abducted) Otto to Saxony where he campaigned for the German throne for himself. Not everyone supported this, and some of the nobles removed themselves to a place where they could plan to oppose him. The civil war that would have resulted led to Henry backing down from his claims so long as he was restored as Duke of Bavaria (a title he had lost when he first opposed Otto II).

In 984 the regency then passed to Theophanu. She kept much of her husband's court intact, and Archbishop of Mainz Willligis, technically by his office the chancellor of Germany, handled a lot of the administration. In 986, at an Easter celebration, Theophanu managed to see the major dukes of Germany (Henry the Quarrelsome, Conrad I of Swabia, Henry III of Carinthia, and Bernard I of Saxony) pay tribute to the five-year-old king of Germany, taking roles in the ceremony as steward, chamberlain, cupbearer, and marshal.

When he turned six, Otto began being tutored by Gerbert of Aurillac and court chaplain Bernward of Hildesheim.

Things were relatively calm (although Adelaide found some of her previous authority lessened). The first real challenge came when the Great Gandersheim Conflict broke out, involving two of the loyal servants we have already met as well as Otto's great aunt whom we have not. I'll tell you about that tomorrow.

Theophanu and Adelaide

Odilo of Cluny (c.962 - 1049) wrote a life of Holy Roman Empress Adelaide of Italy (to whom he was supposedly related). It is from Odilo that we learn Adelaide was very happy when "that Greek woman died."

The "Greek woman" was Theophanu, who in 972 married Adelaide's son, Otto II, who became Holy Roman Emperor a year later when his father and Adelaide's husband, Otto I, died.

Part of the issue between mother-in-law and daughter-in-law may have been simply that Adelaide, the first woman to be crowned Holy Roman Empress, who was deeply involved in the empire's administration, was unwilling to relinquish her authority and step away during her son's reign. She may also have been (this is not unlikely) unhappy with a foreigner marrying her son (there was some hostility between the East and West of the Roman Empire).

There were more overt reasons, however. In 972, Adelaide's niece married a man known as Henry the Quarrelsome, who was the son of Otto I's younger brother Henry I of Bavaria. Henry wanted to oust Otto II in 974. Otto imprisoned Henry in 976, but when Otto II died in 983 Henry was released and tried to take the throne from the successor, Otto III. Henry kidnapped the three-year-old Otto III, but he lost the support of the German nobility and was forced to submit to the authority of Empress Theophanu. Adelaide's early friendly association with Henry made Theophanu unhappy.

Otto II had even felt it necessary to exile Adelaide from court in 978 because of her interference with his administration, spending her time between Pavia and with her brother Conrad I, King of Burgundy, in Arles. Conrad helped reconcile mother and son.

Peter Damian (c.1007 - 1072), although writing later, claimed that Theophanu had an affair with John Philagathos (c.945 - c.1001), a Greek monk who was Theophanu's chaplain and Otto's chancellor 980-982 and briefly became Antipope John XVI.

When Otto II died, Otto III was only three, so Theophanu was regent, but Adelaide would have had a difficult time not being involved in government with her son gone. Both women held the title Empress. Adelaide had dowry lands and wanted to dispose of those rents/taxes as she saw fit, but Theophanu now (as regent for the young Emperor Otto III), had the authority to direct many of those finances. Theophanu pre-deceased Adelaide, who then became regent for Otto III. Let's see how that went, next time.

Camaldolese Hermits

The earliest-founded monastic group that is currently part of the Benedictine Confederation is the Camaldolese Hermits of Mount Corona. It was established about 980 CE by the Italian monk, Saint Romuald.

Romuald (c. 950 - 1025/27) was born in an aristocratic family in Ravenna, in northeastern Italy. An indulged and indulgent youth, at the age of 20 his life changed when he was his father's second in a duel. Seeing his father win the duel—in which he killed a relative over a property dispute—changed the young man. Romuald did 40 days of penance for his part in the affair, and became a monk at the Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Ravenna.

Although his location followed the Cluniac Order, Romuald wanted something more strict, and he raised the ire of his comrades by criticizing their excesses and lapses. He was given permission to leave the monastery; he went to live under the guidance of a strict hermit in Venice.

In a parallel to Romuald's turning point, we turn to the doge of Venice in 978, Pietro I Orseolo. Pietro had taken the position after being involved in a conspiracy to overthrow his predecessor, Pietro IV Candiano. Orseolo, feeling remorse for his actions two years earlier, left Venice in the middle of the night without telling anyone, not even his family, and went with Romuald and others to join the Benedictines at at Saint-Michel-de-Cuxa in southern France.

Over the next several years, Romuald refined his ideas of monasticism, then spent 30 years traveling Italy and preaching the benefits of a strict monastic life, founding and reforming monasteries. An attempt to be abbot at the Basilica of Sant'Apollinare on the invitation of Holy Roman Emperor Otto III failed, since the monks objected to his reforms.

In 1012 he arrived in Arezzo, where he was given land in Camaldoli, upon which Romuald built five hermit cells; these and a monastery built two years later became the motherhouse for the Camaldolese Order.

Romuald's idea of a proper life was laid out in his rule, entitled "Empty yourself completely and sit waiting." His central advice for monks and hermits was:

Sit in your cell as in paradise. Put the whole world behind you and forget it. Watch your thoughts like a good fisherman watching for fish. The path you must follow is in the Psalms — never leave it.

There are a dozen locations that are part of the Camaldolese Congregation totaling several dozen members.

Before settling in Arezzo, Romuald stayed for a time in Vallombrosa. Years later, a monk stayed at Camaldoli for awhile, and then started his own congregation at Vallombrosa. The next-oldest member of the Benedictine Confederation is the Vallombrosian Congregation, and we'll see what makes them different tomorrow.

The Donation Hoax

The Donatio Constantini (Latin: "Donation of Constantine") was a document in which the converted Emperor Constantine, whose Edict of Milan ended Christian persecution, gave the popes authority over the western part of the Roman Empire.

The 5th-century "Legend of St. Sylvester" tells about the relationship between Constantine and Pope Sylvester I. In it, Sylvester cures Constantine of leprosy, who then converts to Christianity. Following this, Constantine grants to Sylvester authority over Rome, Antioch, Alexandria, Constantinople, Jerusalem, and all churches, as well as any estates that are attached to churches. The oldest manuscript of the story is from the 9th century, but it is not until Pope Leo IX (pope from 1049 - 1054) that it gets used to affirm the supremacy of the papacy over temporal lords. It became a valuable tool in the argument, especially with the Holy Roman Emperors, that the pope's decisions and decrees superseded anyone else's. There was plenty of legal opposition to the idea, especially starting with Otto III, but no one denied its authenticity.

Then, in 1440, a Catholic priest named Lorenzo Valla took a close look at the document. He was a specialist in Latin translation, and something about the document did not look right. His familiarity with numerous Latin documents of all types and all times led him to the conclusion that, rather than an official document from the 4th century, it was a poorly written forgery from the 8th century, and therefore a hoax. 

Why was he motivated to chop down the chief pillar of papal authority over secular powers, when he himself as a priest could benefit? He might have had a personal reason, which I will look into and share next time.

Who Invented the Mechanical Clock?

In researching the previous post, I came across a reference to Pope Sylvester II (formerly Gerbert d'Aurillac, c.946 - 1003) inventing the mechanical clock. The source of this was the William Godwin's final book, Lives of the Necromancers, An Account of the Most Eminent Persons in Successive Ages Who Have Claimed for Themselves, or to Whom Has Been Imputed by Others, The Exercise of Magical Powers [1834]:

This generous adventurer, prompted by an insatiable thirst for information, is said to have secretly withdrawn himself from his monastery of Fleury in Burgundy, and to have spent several years among the Saracens of Cordova. Here be acquired a knowledge of the language and learning of the Arabians, particularly of their astronomy, geometry and arithmetic; and he is understood to have been the first that imparted to the north and west of Europe a knowledge of the Arabic numerals, a science which at first sight might be despised for its simplicity, but which in its consequences is no inconsiderable instrument in subtilising the powers of human intellect. He likewise introduced the use of clocks. He is also represented to have made an extraordinary proficiency in the art of magic; and among other things...

The italics are mine. A little further along, Godwin adds a footnote that tells us his information comes from William of Malmesbury. William (c.1095 - c.1143) was the foremost English historian of the 12th century. Not exactly a contemporary, but maybe near enough that the memories and stories were still fresh? It would be difficult to determine the accuracy of this report, especially in the context of a brief blog post. Fortunately, I don't have to.

As it turns out, Marek Otisk of the University of Ostrava (Czechoslovakia) published an article on this very topic in September 2020, Gerbert of Aurillac (Pope Sylvester II) as a Clockmaker. He examines the reports from William of Malmesbury, the Chronicle of Thietmar of Merseburg (died c.1018), and a much later record (someone who died in 1610). Among his detailed examination of these and other historical records we learn that although William claims Gerbert built a clock in Reims, a friend of Gerbert's (Richest of Reims), writes about Gerbert's stay in Reims in detail and never mentions a clock. Otisk concludes that William's ascribing of the creation of a clock to Gerbert cannot be trusted.

The later report by the Benedictine monk Arnold Wion, who died about 1610, claims Gerbert built a clepsydra, a water clock, in Ravenna. What we know of Gerber's time in Ravenna, however, is that it was very short; again, no contemporary accounts support this story.

Thietmar of Merseburg tells a different story, that Gerbert created a clock in Magdeburg. Thietmar was a bishop and close friend of Holy Roman Emperor Henry II, who succeeded Otto III, credited with making Gerbert into Pope Sylvester II. Thietmar's Chronicle includes a specific detail about Gerbert creating, in Magdeburg, "created clocks (horologium) which he correctly calibrated according to the Polar star (stella, dux nautarum) which he observed through an observation tube (fistula)." [Otisk, p.32] Otisk likes this account because both Thietmar and Gerbert were in Magdeburg in the late 990s, and very likely crossed paths several times.

The use of the word horologium is misleading, however. We use it for the word "clock," but it is more likely that Gerbert was creating a calibrated armillary, or possible even an astrolabe, which he knew about from his exposure to science being done by Islamic philosophers.

So I can't tell you who created the first mechanical clock. But the question of horologium remains: when long-ago writers refer to "clocks," what exactly did they mean? What constituted a clock? There were several ways to measure time without staring at the sun and judging, and I'll talk about those devices tomorrow.

The Ottonians

The Ottonians, the Ottonian dynasty, the Ottonian Period in Germany—all these refer to the same topic: a Saxon dynasty of German monarchs (three of whom were named, natürlich, "Otto") that lasted from 919 until 1024CE.

Its founder was not named Otto, however (although his father was); that was Henry the Fowler (876 - 936), son of Otto the Illustrious. He was named primus inter pares (Latin: "first among equals") by the German dukes of Bavaria, Swabia, and Lotharingia during the Hungarian invasions of East Francia, and named Rex Francorum ("King of the Franks") in 919. He was victorious over the Hungarians and amassed sufficient power to be uncontested when he passed his title onto his son, Otto I (912 - 973).

Also known as Otto the Great, one of the chief historical events connected to him is the restoration of the Holy Roman Empire (which, it should be noted, was by any standard definitions neither "holy" nor "Roman" nor an "empire"). Sure, the administrative structure needed to manage the large area (shown in the illustration) was inherited from the Carolingians and Charlemagne, and they got it from the Romans, but it was nowhere near what the Roman Empire had been.

Pope John XXII, however, wanted Otto's help in controlling Rome and the Lombards. Otto was a good choice: he was geographically close to Rome, he had defeated the pagan Magyars in 955, making him look like a hero for Christianity, and he was (in some ways) the successor of a previous Frankish king, Charlemagne, who had been made Holy Roman Emperor in Christmas Day in 800. Otto, whose wife was the Italian Adelaide of Burgundy (931 - 999). stepped in for the pope and conquered the Kingdom of Italy in 961. He was crowned Holy Roman Emperor on 2 February 962.

The "re-creation" of the empire and its expansion to much of central and Southern Europe sparked a bit of a cultural resurgence, the Ottonian Renaissance. This continued under Otto the Great's son, Otto II, partially because of his marriage to Theophanu, the niece of Byzantine emperor John I Tzimiskes. This helped create an influx of Byzantine art into Europe.

Otto II died after only 10 years, aged 28. His son, Otto III, was only 3 years old; his regents were his mother Theophanu, his grandmother Adelaide, and Henry II ("the Quarrelsome"), Duke of Bavaria. When he came of age, among other things he installed his confidants as popes: Pope Gregory V and the science-minded Gerbert of Aurillac, Pope Sylvester II.

When Otto III  died young (aged 21 years), he was succeeded by Henry II, a son of his regent Duke Henry. Henry was crowned emperor by Pope Benedict VIII in 1014. He founded numerous dioceses and intertwined secular and religious administrative power. When he died childless in 1024, the Ottonian dynasty ended. The crown went to Conrad II, a great-grandson of a daughter of Otto I, starting the Salian dynasty.

Before we can move to other topics, however, I want to look more at the results of the Ottonian Renaissance. See you tomorrow.

The End of the World

Given all the fuss about the Mayan calendar, I thought it would be fun to look at other times when people thought the world might end.

The Epistles of Paul (1st century CE) in the New Testament suggest that Jesus' return was imminent and would start the process of the end times.

Saint Clement (c.90 CE) predicted the end of the world was imminent (probably influenced by Paul).

Bishop Hilary of Poitiers (c.300-c.368) was called the "Hammer of the Arians" for his opposition to them. He claimed in 365 that Emperor Constantius II (a semi-Arian) was the Antichrist, and the Apocalypse was imminent.

Hilary's student, St. Martin of Tours (316-397), claimed the end would come by 400 CE.

Hippolytus (170-35), sometimes called the first antipope, was a great scholar who thought 500 CE was a good round number for the end of the world. The historian Sextus Julius Africanus (c.160-c.240) also thought 500 was a good round number for the end times.

In 968 CE, the army of German Emperor Otto III saw an eclipse and widely believed that the end was nigh.

In 992 CE, Good Friday (a "floating" holy day) coincided with the Feast of the Annunciation. This concurrence had been thought to be a sign of the end. A report came from Germany that the sun rose in the north, and that suns and moons were fighting in the sky. Other countries missed that sight.

In May of 1000 CE, Charlemagne's body (that's him in the illustration) was disinterred in order to fulfill a legend that an emperor would rise from his sleep to fight the Antichrist.

A belief that Jesus would return 1000 years after his death made people look to 1033 CE as a date for the beginning of the end.

Pope Innocent III, scholar that he was, added the legendary number 666 to the date of the founding of Islam, and concluded that the end would come in 1284 CE.

The Black Death was seen by many as the end.

...and so on.